Weighing the Pros and Cons

Article 1

Title: Risk-Based Consumption Advice for Farmed Atlantic and Wild Pacific Salmon Contaminated with Dioxins and Dioxin-like Compounds

Journal Source: Environmental Health Perspectives

Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1257546/

Article 2

Title: Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Journal Source: University of Maryland School of Medicine

Link: http://www.fishcapsule.com/docs/133-Omega-3-Fatty-Acids.pdf


Summary: A study by the Maryland School of Medicine found that Atlantic salmon that were farm raised had an average of 1.09 to 1.83 grams of EPA and DHA per 3-oz servings. On the other hand, wild caught salmon were shown to only have around .90 to 1.56 grams of EPA and DHA per 3-oz serving.This same survey also showed that an alternative to salmon is Pacific and Atlantic herring, which had 1.71 and 1.81 grams per 3-oz serving respectively. Although farm raised salmon had a higher amount of DHA and EPA, there is a large downside. A report by the Environment Health Perspectives research groups found that several organic contaminants were found in farmed Atlantic Salmon, as well as wild pacific salmon. The report also found levels of polychlorinated biphenyls, toxaphene, dieldrin, dioxins, and polybrominated diphenyl. These toxins counteract the beneficial effects of the omega-3's within the fish and increase the risk of other diseases. The most harmful of these toxins is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), which is a group I carcinogen. Residents of Seveso, Italy, showed a reduction of plasma levels in the blood. Children exposed to dioxin showed altered lymphocytes and thrombocytes. Although levels of toxins have dropped in recent years, farmed Atlantic salmon and wild Pacific salmon still contain some toxins; you must decide if the increased level of omega-3's is worth the risk of consuming these toxins.

Australia's Beef Dominates Omega-3

Title: Nutritional composition of red meat

Journal Source: Nutrition & Dietetics

Link: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1747-0080.2007.00197.x/full

Summary: The study of this article focuses on red meat. Specifically on the Australian diet as well. This article has found that not only does red meat contain longed chain omega-3 PUFAs, but they also contain a wide variety of endogenous antioxidants. Overall, lean red meat has a low fat concentration, but when analyzing different kinds of red meat, studies have shown that breed, diet, season, and meat cut play a huge role to what kind of benefits you get out of the meat. 11-29% of the fatty acids are PUFAs. Studies on protein also showed that cooked red meat contains slightly more protein than raw red meat. As for fatty acids .020g/100g of DHA from mutton was found in mutton which is the second most highest fatty acid concentration found in all sorts of meat. Fatty acid concentrations in white fish show to be similarly close to land animal fatty acid concentrations, so they do not make a big difference. Only the oily fish (salmon) will dominate the omega-3 concentrations in meat. Pasture fed beef also seems to be a better source than grain-fed beef which is why Australia has better Omega-3 red meat than the US. Oily fish will always contains the most fatty acids. Lamb and Mutton also possess a higher trans-fatty acid level than beef and veal so overall, lamb and mutton seems to demonstrate the next best meat to oily fish like salmon.

Grass-Fed vs. Grain-Fed Beef

A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef

Nutrition Journal

https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2891-9-10

Grass-based diets can improve the fatty acid (FA) composition of beef and enhance total omega-3 fatty acids. Grass-fed beef is less cholesterol-elevating than grain fed and has palmitic FA's (which are the most common saturated FA's found in animals). Red meat is full of nutrients and an important source of essential amino acids. 30% of FA content is composed of oleic acid, a monounsaturated FA (MUFA) that has a cholesterol-lowering effect and reduces risk of stroke and decreases systolic and diastolic blood pressure. However, higher fat grain-fed portions in grain-fed beef can achieve similar intakes of omega-3 FAs.  Direct contrasts between grass and grain rations greatly affect the overall FA profile found in the lipid depots (areas of fat storage) and body tissues. According to data, there is no consistent difference in total saturated fatty acid content between grass and grain fed but the saturated FA's that are considered bad for the body's serum cholesterol levels (one's amount of high-density lipoprotein) were higher in grain-fed beef, so grass-fed beef produces more ideal saturated FA compositions. And despite the fact that grain-fed beef consistently produces higher concentrations of MUFAs than grass-fed, grass-fed beef has a higher concentration of TVA (an important MUFA and potent anti-carcinogen- which inhibits the development of cancer). Grass-fed beef consistently shows higher concentrations of FAs, creating a more favorable omega-6:omega-3 ratio. Overall, grain-fed is not terribly bad for you but grass-fed contains more beneficial omega-3's and substances that affect your overall health in a more positive way. 

Quantitative Analysis of the Benefits and Risks of Consuming Farmed and Wild Salmon

Title: Quantitative Analysis of the Benefits and Risks of Consuming Farmed and Wild Salmon

Journal Source: The Journal of Nutrition

Link: http://jn.nutrition.org/content/135/11/2639.long

Summary: This study looked at the relative risks of exposure to contaminants in both farm raised Atlantic salmon (from North America, South America, and Europe) and wild Pacific salmon. Types of contamination were categorized into two groups- carcinogenic (cancer causing) and non-carcinogenic. The most common contaminants are dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and some pesticides. The study measured these risks using the Benefit Carcinogenic Risk Ratio (BCRR) and the Benefit Non-Carcinogenic Risk Ratio (BNRR)- that is, the relative heath benefits of consuming EPA and DHA from the fish vs. consequences of consuming too many contaminants.

They found that although on average farmed salmon have "significantly higher" concentrations of omega-3s than wild salmon, they also have the tendency to be more contaminated. In terms of non-carcinogenic risk, wild salmon have a higher amount of EPA+DHA per unit of non-carcinogenic risk. Farmed Salmon from Chile and Washington State are almost on par with wild salmon. Conversely, farmed salmon sold in europe have the least amount of EPA+DHA per unit of non-carcinogenic risk. However, both farmed and wild salmon can be consumed at the daily recommended dose of 1 g/day EPA+DHA and stay under acceptable non-carcinogenic risk levels.

The story is different when it comes to carcinogenic risk, however, Neither farmed nor wild salmon can be consumed at the rate of 1 gram/day of EPA+DHA and stay under acceptable risk levels for cancer. Cumulative cancer risk for farmed salmon is 24x acceptable cancer risk level- for wild salmon, it is 8x.

The effects of PCBs, dioxins, and other contaminants in wild salmon can cause neurological complications that are oftentimes irreversible. However, even though this information seems bleak, it is estimated that if half of CHD deaths are prevented by regularly consuming the recommended dose of daily fatty acids (7100 out of ever 100,000 individuals) and an extra 24 deaths per 100,000 individuals die from cancer as a result of consuming fish, the number of lives saved is 300x the number of lives lost when farmed salmon are eaten at a rate of 1 g/d of EPA+DHA.

How To Maximize The Amount Of Omega 3s In Diets

WHERE TO FIND OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS AND HOW FEEDING ANIMALS WITH DIET ENRICHED IN OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS TO INCREASE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF DERIVED PRODUCTS FOR HUMAN : WHAT IS ACTUALLY USEFUL ?

The Journal of Nutrition, Health, and Aging

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.457.2821&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Omega 3's have cardiovascular, brain ,and mental disorder benefits and thus are very important.  Unfortunately, 50% too little omega 3s are consumed by people in America and Europe.  This study was conducted to find how best to supply omega 3's in food.  It found by feeding animals linseed and rapeseed grain extracts ALA acid was twice as high in beef, six times in pork, ten in chicken, and forty in eggs.  Also, by feeding animals fish extracts or algae oils the level of DHA was twice as high in beef, seven times in chicken, six times in eggs, and twenty times in salmon.  This study concluded how important it is to feed animals, especially salmon, good fats to improve their nutritional content.  Also, the study stressed the importance of omega 3s in baby formula.  Overall, the study recommended eating more omega 3s because the nutritional benefits are so great compared to how much it costs to increase omega 3s in your diet.

Effect of feeding system on FA in Astrualian beef

Title: Effect of feeding systems on omega-3 fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid and trans fatty acids in Australian beef cuts: potential impact on human health
Author: Eric N Ponnampalam, Neil J Mann, Andrew J Sinclair
Date: 2006
Journal Source: RMIT University, Australia.
Link:http://www.seattlecentral.edu/faculty/jwhorley/FatsInBeef.pdf

Summary:
        In this research, Australian Scientist studied the Fatty Acids contents of Beef in three different feeding system through three different cuts. The three food system are: grass-fed, Short term grain-fed(STGF), and Long term grain-fed(LTFL); the three cuts are: rump cuts, strip loin cuts, and blade cuts.
        First, saturated fatty acid content is significantly higher in LTGF while it doesn't differ too much between grass-fed and STGF. Second, the 18:1-trans fat in grass-fed about half of STGF and a third of LTFL. In overall Omega-6 content, the Grass-fed has a lower amount. In overall Omega-3 content, the Grass-fed has higher amount though DHA does not have a major difference. The total long chain n-3 PUFA in grass-fed is similar to white fish. The grass-fed's Omega-3 to Omega-6 ratio is about 1:2, a very impressive amount. Also, in comparison, Rump cuts has the best Omega-3 contents followed by Blade cuts.

Back to Basics

Title: "Pasture Perfect"

Journal Source: Taylor Made Beef

Link: http://www.taylormadebeef.com/PasturePerfect.pdf

Summary: Cows used to exclusively eat grass until agricultural technology progressed and grain became a cheaper alternative for farmers. After extensive research on the impacts of feeding cattle grains and grass, farmers are flocking back to the "ancient and healthier way of raising animals." One of the primary reasons for this switch is that grain-fed beef has over four times as much fat per serving than grass-fed beef. In addition, grain-fed beef contains significantly less omega-3s than grass-fed beef. The reason for this discrepancy is due to the fact that omega-3 fatty acids are created in the green leaves of plants, which means that grass-fed cows will consume and absorb significantly more omega-3s than their grain-fed counterparts. Scientists at the University of Hawaii have found that steak from grass-fed cattle can have up to six times as many omega-3s as steak from grain-fed cattle. This omega-3 difference can also be found in the milk from the cows. Milk from grass-fed cows has a concentration of omega-3s over three times higher than that of grain-fed cows. When considering all of the benefits that a diet full of omega-3s has been shown to produce, it is easy to see why feeding cattle grass is once again becoming the standard agricultural practice. To top it all off, research from Cornell University has determined that the significant increase in the amount of deadly E. coli food poisoning incidents we have seen lately is due in part to the recent proliferation of grain-fed cattle, who have approximately 300 times more E. coli in their guts than grass-fed cattle.

Grass Fed vs Corn Fed Omega-3 Levels

Title: Fatty acid content and composition of UK beef and lamb muscle in relation to production system and implications for human nutrition

Journal Source: Science Direct

Link: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0309174097001447

Authors: M. Ensor, K.G. Hallet, B. Hewett, G.A.J. Fursey, J.D. Wood, G. Harrington

Summary:
        This study examines the types of fats found in grass fed steers vs cereal/corn fed bulls. The study finds that generally the ratio of polyunsaturated fats to saturated fats in meat is relatively low. Despite this, it finds that the amount of polyunsaturated fats (specifically n-6's and n-3's) is high enough to be of significance to human health. The first major finding it makes it that grass fed steers had a higher overall percentage of omega-3's in their beef than the cereal/corn fed bulls. The corn fed bulls however, had a higher overall percentage of omega-6's in their beef than the grass fed steers. The ratio of omega-6's to omega-3's was also "more desireable" in the grass fed beef than in the corn fed. However, the overall ratio of polyunsaturated fats to saturated fats was higher in the corn/cereal fed bulls than the grass fed steers. The study also notes that while the concentrations of the main polyunsaturated fatty acids were much lower in both types of beef than in fish, their presence in beef is still significant since it is more widely consumed.

High Contaminants in Farmed Salmon

Title: Global Assessment of Organic Contaminants in Farmed Salmon

Journal Source: Science AAAS

Link: https://www.preventivecare.com/shared/pdf/GlobalAssessmentSalmon-Hites.pdf

Salmon consumption has increased by about 40% over the past two decades. And over half of the salmon that is sold globally is farm-raised. Most of the farm-raised salmon is in Northern Europe, Chile, Canada, and the United States. The annual global production of farmed salmon has increased from ~24,000 to over 1 million metric tons.

The health benefits of fish are clear from our previous findings. But, with such an increase in fish production and consumption, there becomes a need to investigate any harmful effects that result is such a large boom.

Since salmon are carnivorous fish, they bioaccumulate contaminants.

The study conducted on wild and farmed salmon did not report on methylmercury, because in a preliminary study, there was no significant difference in methylmercury levels between farmed and wild salmon. However, they did measure different organochlorine contaminants. They focused on PCBs, dioxins, toxaphene, and dieldrin.

In the experiment, they analyzed salmon samples and salmon feed in a gas chromatograph.

Farmed salmon had significantly higher concentrations of contaminants than wild salmon in thirteen of the fourteen tested contaminants. Furthermore, farmed salmon from the Atlantic Ocean (Europe and North America) had higher concentrations of contaminants than farmed salmon from the Pacific Ocean (South America - Chile). Overall, Europe had the highest concentrations of contaminants, followed by North America and South America.

The high concentrations of contaminants in farmed salmon from Europe could be due to the feed the salmon were given. The concentrations in feed purchased from Europe were significantly higher than those in feed purchased from North and South America.

The levels of PCBs and dieldrin in the farmed salmon do not exceed the tolerance levels set by the FDA. However, the FDA does not consider the health risks of exposure to more than one contaminant. This is worrisome since PCBs, dieldrin, toxaphene, and dioxin are all found in salmon and in especially high concentrations in farmed salmon. The EPA, however, has consumption advice of no more than 1 meal per month for all samples of farmed salmon. This consumption advice is based on the potential cancer risks of consuming PCBs, toxaphene, and dieldrin.

Overall, the experiment concludes that the consumption of farmed Atlantic salmon may pose risks that detract from the beneficial effects of consuming fish.

Title: "Why Grassfed is Best"

Source: The Quivira Coalition

Link: http://agriculturalconnections.seedleaf.com/images/pages/grassfed_quivira.pdf

Summary:

In the 1950s farmers around the country took their cows off of grass and started to feed them a cheaper corn grain diet. This resulted in many Americans having cardiovascular problems. The grains that the cows were being fed were high in omega-6s. Omega-6s higher the bad cholesterol LDL and may even make cancer fells grow faster and more invasive. These grains also contain man made fats which are trans-fatty acids. Trans-fatty acids raise our bad cholesterol and unlike fats found in nature, they also lower our good cholesterol. Trans-fatty occur in the hydrogenation process that converts vegetable oil into margarine and shortening. Trans-fats are the worst fats for cardiovascular health.

Cows need to have a natural grass fed diet to absorb omega-3s. Omega-3s originate in the green leaves of plants and algae, specifically in the chloroplasts. Fish have a larger amount because they eat other fish that feed on algae. The grass fed cows also give us conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), an acid that may have an effect fighting off cancer.

Grass fed cows are considered "lean meats" which lower LDL cholesterol levels. Grass fed cows have 2 to 6 times more omega-3 fatty acids than corn fed meat.

Omega-3 Possibilites with Nuerons & Oxidative Damage

Omega-3s: Serotonin and its Psychological Effects

Enzymatic Action Competition Between Omega 3 and Omega 6

Omega-3 Benefits and Membrane Fluidity

PUFAs- Heart Attack Remodeling and Stress/Inflammation

Fatty Acids and Mitosis

Fatty Acids in the Body

Omega-3 Retinal Impact And Issues Associated with Omega-3s

Here are my links not presented in the video, but on my power point slide

10/27/16

The Diverse Benefits of Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Diverse Benefits of Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Synaptic Transmission Presentation

Influence of Omega-3's on Children's Cognitive Performance & Reading Comprehension

Link (Study):  http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/111/1/e39.short

Link (n-3 Info): https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolutionary-psychiatry/201103/your-brain-omega-3

Article (Study):  Maternal Supplementation With Very-Long-Chain n-3 Fatty Acids During Pregnancy and Lactation Augments Children’s IQ at 4 Years of Age
Article (n-3 Info): Your Brain On Omega 3

Authors (Study): Ingrid B. Helland, Lars Smith, Kristin Saarem, Ola D. Saugstad, Christian A. Drevon
Authors (n-3 Info): Emily Dean, M.D.

Summary (Combined)

                 In a 2008 study conducted by the American Association of Pediatrics, researchers sought to more deeply look at the effects of  Docosahecanoic (DHA) Omega - 3 fatty acids on a child's cognitive development. 590 mothers were recruited for the study, with 341 of them staying until the end.. Each was given either cod oil (containing DHA, eicosapentaenoic acid, and other Omega-3 fatty acids) or corn oil (containing linoleic acid α-linolenic acid) through 3 months after their delivery. At age 4, each 90 of the children who had been born to the subject mothers came back in for cognitive testing. The test measured a number of verbal and nonverbal comprehension and abilities. Dietary information was then obtained, showing that all the children had been breastfed through at least three months. When the results of cognitive performance were compared to the dietary information, clear patterns were shown. For example, the children of the mothers who had taken cod oil tended to outperform the children of the mothers who had taken corn oil. Also, the performance of the children at age 4 "correlated significantly" with overall maternal intake of DHA's and eicosapentaenoic acid. 

                It is theorized that the maternal diet has so much effect on the brain since Omega-3's are essential for the brain, but cannot be synthesized effectively by the body and thus must be consumed. The brain is known to be made of largely of fats, much of which makes up the cell membranes of neurons which electrical signals pass through. However, unlike most parts of the body, in a healthy brain the only fats used in large amounts are Omega-3's and certain Omega-6 derived versions, which is why they are necessary for brain function. During pregnancy and the first 18 months after birth, the brain of a child goes through massive growth. Therefore, a lack of Omega-3's would logically "starve" the brain for resources during this time, likely why the phenomenon of correlation between fatty acid concentration and cognitive performance takes place.

Neuron Fluidity

Author: Marlene P. Freeman, M.D.; Joseph R. Hibbeln, M.D.;

Katherine L. Wisner, M.D., M.S.; John M. Davis, M.D.;

David Mischoulon, M.D., Ph.D.; Malcolm Peet, M.B., F.R.C.Psych.;

Paul E. Keck, Jr., M.D.; Lauren B. Marangell, M.D.; Alexandra J. Richardson, Ph.D.; James Lake, M.D.; and Andrew L. Stoll, M.D.

Title: Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Evidence Basis for

Treatment and Future Research in Psychiatry

Link:  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6606932_Omega-3_fatty_acids_Evidence_basis_for_treatment_and_future_research_in_psychiatry

Article Date: January 2007
---------------------------------

Author: Omega-3 DHA and EPA for Cognition, Behavior, and Mood: Clinical Findings and Structural Functional Synergies with Cell Membrane Phospholipids

Title: Parris M. Kidd, PhD

Link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Parris_Kidd2/publication/5775265_Kidd_P_M_Omega-3_DHA_and_EPA_for_cognition_behavior_and_mood_clinical_findings_and_structural-functional_synergies_with_cell_membrane_phospholipids_Altern_Med_Rev_12_207-227/links/56fa1af508ae38d710a307e3.pdf

Article Date: October 2007

Arachidonic acid (AA) is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid. It competes for membrane space with EPA and DHA. AA creates pro-inflammatory eicosanoids which are believed to exacerbate dysfunction of immune, cardiovascular, retnal, bone, and central nervous systems. The omega-6 fatty acid EPA competes with AA for enzymatic action. This competition reduces the inflammatory response by EPA. EPA is crucial to provide anti-inflammatory effects by balancing the pro-inflammatory responses of AA. AA are not altogether "bad" fatty acids. They are "bad" with the chronically unbalanced American diet. The disproportionate EPA/AA ratio can lead to heightened risk for pro-inflammatory events that foster degenerative diseases.

EPA, GLA, and AA effects on rats

Title: Arachidonic Acid Offsets the Effects on Mouse Brain and Behavior of a Diet with a Low (n-6):(n-3) Ratio and Very High Levels of Docosahexaenoic Acid

Author: 

P. E. Wainwright*,⁴, 

H.-C. Xing*, 

L. Mutsaers*, 

D. McCutcheon*, and 

D. Kyle†

Date:

Dec 2003

Link; http://jn.nutrition.org/content/127/1/184.short

Summary:

PUFAs are an important part of membrane phospholipids in microglia (immune system glial cell), neurons, and immune cells. EPA, GLA, and AA play different and big roles in membrane fluidity, lipid peroxidation, eicosanoid production, receptor and channel functions, and gene expressions. This can be altered when the phospholipid content of these membranes are changed.

Interleukins were injected into rats, causing inflammatory-sickness response and stress/anxiety. It did the latter by increasing the concentration of corticosterone.

Ethyl-EPA supplemented in the diet reduced the stress/anxiety behavior of rats in a maze. It did this by reducing the concentration of serum corticosterone.

Another group of rats were supplemented with an omega 6 fatty acid, Ethyl GLA (Ethyl-gamma-linolenic acid). It did not effect stress behaviors or corticosterone concentration. However, both Ethyl EPA and Ethyl GLA reduced prostaglandin secretion and increased secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, they both reduced the inflammatory-sickness.

Another group was supplemented with AA, the omega-6 fatty acid Arachidonic Acid. It increased anxiety behavior, increased the basal inflammatory response, and raised corticosterone concentrations. However, it did not enhance the effects caused by the injected interleukine.

AA, an omega-6 fatty acid, can be converted to pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. They can induce the inflammatory response. Though GLA is the precursor of AA, it inhibits inflammation. EPA, one of the precursors, of DHA reduces proinflammatory cytokines by reducing membrane AA synthesis. However, having an optimal ratio of n-3 and n6 fatty acids is important for normal signal transduction. 

Oscillatory movement

Article 1 Link: http://iovs.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2179008
Article 1 Author: D G Birch; E E Birch; D R Hoffman; R U Uauy
Article 1 Date:  July, 1992
Article 1 Title: Retina development in very-low-birth-weight infants fed diets differing in omega-3 fatty acids.

Article 2 Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11888/
Article 2 Author: W Hodge, D Barnes, HM Schachter, Y Pan, EC Lowcock, L Zhang, M Sampson, A Morrison, K Tran, M Miguelez, and G Lewin.
Article 2 Date: July 2005
Article 2 Title: 117 effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Eye Health: Summary

Background: Oscillatory movement is the motion in the eye which repeats itself after equal intervals of time. This is related to "saccadic movement" which is rapid changes in position of the eyeball. This also relates to involuntary movement of the eye when the eye fixes in on an object.
Oscillatory movement and retina development is affected by a-linolenic acid deficiency and by a deficiency of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in infant formulas and term diets.

DHA is found highest concentration in the retina. Especially in the disk membranes of the outer segments of photoreceptor cells.
DHA is half of the fatty acids in the phospholipids of rod outer segment membranes.
Studies show that the DHA influences the biophysical properties of membranes through its high polyunsaturation, this may help to create a membrane that accommodates the dynamic behavior of rhodopsin during the photoreceptive process. (process that converts light into electrical signals in the rod cells, cone cells, and photosensitive cells in the retina of the eye).
DHA may also modulate the activity of membrane bound enzymes and receptors, kinetics of the membrane transport systems.

The Effects of N-3 Fatty Acids on Neural Membrane Fluidity

Article 1 Title: Effects of fatty acid unsaturation numbers on membrane fluidity and α-secretase-dependent amyloid precursor protein processing

Article 2 Title: Handbook of Essential Fatty Acid Biology

Article 1 Authors: Xiaoguang Yang, Wenwen Sheng, Grace Y. Sun, and James C-M. Lee

Article 2 Authors: David I. Mostofsky, Shlomo Yehuda

Article 1 Date: December 22nd, 2010
Article 2 Date: Copyright 1997

Article 1 Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3040984/
Article 2 Link: https://books.google.com/books?id=omXmBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA443&lpg=PA443&dq=n-3+neuron+membrane+fluidity&source=bl&ots=X9Ppm9WauM&sig=zcs_nqHXZnwuYgp_gn3AQ9ohDpo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiT573yh9bPAhUJLyYKHT0BBLcQ6AEILDAC#v=onepage&q=n-3%20neuron%20membrane%20fluidity&f=false

Summary: The membranes of neurons play a large role in the transmuting electrical signals from one neuron to the next. Thus the lipid bi layers are highly important to transmission of signals throughout the nervous system. Research published by nuerochem suggests that the high concentration of PUFA's and omega-3 fatty acids plays a role on the effectiveness of the membrane. The study worked with Alzheimer's patients, who were experiencing psychological issues. The team found that with AA, EPA, and DHA supplementation for 24 hours, membrane fluidity was increased. It is theorized that this is due to the the bent nature of PUFA's, which prevent "tight packing" of the lipid bilayers and thus increase fluidity. The importance of this is recognized by work published by David I. Mostofsky and Shlomo Yehuda, which states that membrane fluidity is crucial to the optimal performance of the neuron membane in transferring electrical signals. They go on to say that a balanced amount of n-3 an n-6 can help modulate the neuronal fluidity and thus improve neural performance. 

Now You Can SEE Why Omega-3s Are Important

Title: "What are the benefits of omega-3 fatty acids (omega-3s) for children- 12 months and older?"
Author: Professor Andrew Sinclair

Article Date: August 2007

Link: http://www.omega-3centre.com/images/stories/pdfs/The_Omega-3_Centre_-_Child_Intake_Consensus_Report.pdf#page=8

DHA is a long chain omega-3 fatty acid with 22 carbon atoms and 6 cis double bonds that is found in high proportions in membrane in the retina. The most DHA in membrane lipids is in the disk membranes of the rod outer segments of photoreceptor cells in the retina. The photoreceptor cell is a specialized type of neuron in the retina that converts photons (particles of light) into electrical signals. The outer segments of photoreceptor cells are specialized membranes that initiate the process of vision so DHA acts as a molecular spring when the light activates rhodopsin (a purple-red light sensitive pigment in the retina). The mechanism of DHA's benefits to brain and retinal enhancement is that DHA is formed from internally originated mediators that are also known as "docosatrienes". These docosatrienes can be found in blood, leukocytes (white blood cells), murine brain, and glial cells (which support and protect neurons). All of these parts of the body have different impacts on the eye, so as DHA is an essential fatty acid, our body craves these omega-3s, which can enhance retinal development. As I researched leukocytes, I came across another fascinating article which explained that the small blurry dots that can appear when a person looks at the sun are actually white blood cells that you are seeing in your own eye- these cells are also known as leukocytes! 

Omega-3's and the Effect it has on Serotonin and Dopamine production.

Title: Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.

Authors: Kuan-Pin Su, Shih-Yi Huang, Chih-Chiang Chiu, Winston W. Shen.

Date: August 2003

Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10638701_Omega-3_fatty_acids_in_major_depressive_disorder_A_preliminary_double-blind_placebo-controlled_trial

Summary: People with depression have been shown to have significantly lowered omega-3 PUFA levels, including EPA and DHA in cell tissue. Communities that consume a higher amount of fish are shown to have lower prevalence of depression. This eight week study was to test if these two facts were merely coincidental or if there is a correlation between omega-3 PUFA levels and depression. Cerebral (brain) cell membranes are composed of PUFAs that can only be obtained from a diet. A lack of these PUFAs can alter membrane micro-structure, which results in abnormal signal transduction (the transmission of signals of the cell's exterior to its interior), and alter neurotransmission.

Twenty-two patients were studied, with twelve receiving omega-3 PUFA supplements, and ten receiving placebos. What the study found is that EPA was responsible for improving schizophrenic symptoms and depressive disorders, and DHA was found to play an important role in functioning of neurotransmitters, including serotonin. In the frontal cortex of rats with low brain concentrations of DHA, there was a 44% increase of serotonin-2A receptor number. This could potentially be a marker of reduced serotonin function. Patients that received omega-3 PUFAs showed lower scores on the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, while the placebo group showed little reduction on their scores. This shows that there is a connection between omega-3 PUFA levels and depression.

Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency can alter serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission, as well as membrane micro-structure. It is hypothesized that omega-3 PUFAs can restore the altered membranes and neurotransmission in patients with depression.

Anatomy of the Neuron along with Oxidative Stress

Article 1(Neurons): The Human Memory: Neurons & Synapses

Article 2(Oxidative Stress): Antioxidants, Oxidative Damage & Oxygen Deprivation Stress: a Review

Authors of Article 1: Luke Mastin

Authors of Article 2: Olga Blokhina, Eija Virolainen, and Kurt V. Fagerstedt

Date 1: 2010

Date 2: 16 January 2002

Link 1: http://www.human-memory.net/brain_neurons.html

Link 2: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/91/2/179.short

Summary: A neuron is a cell possessing eletrical capabilities that allows them to connect to other neurons to transmit data throughout our body. Neurons play a huge role in the central nervous system. They relay information such as sensory (sight, noise, touch, smell) and spinal transmission for the spinal system. The generalization of the anatomy of the neuron can be made up in three parts: the soma, dendrites, and axon. The soma of the neuron is the bulk of the organism and the dendrites are the figures that branch of the soma to create neurotic synapses. The axon connects to the soma which branches off the to form axon terminals and can be used to transmit signals from axon to other neurons. So in a general picture of how a synapse works, the axon from a separate neuron will come in contact with a dendrite or soma from another neuron and send electrochemical impulses for transmissions. The axon terminal contains numerous (thousands) amounts of neurotransmitters. Examples of neurotransmitters are glutamate, GABA, dopamine, melatonin, and seratonin.

                 Oxidative damage is where the production of reactive oxygen or superoxide are produced in the body to lead to oxidative damage and stress. It is believed that these are the genesis for common symptoms and diseases such as ADHD, cancers, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis, and many more. If there is an increase in product of superoxide, then that means there will be a less amount of antioxidants being produced in the body. This is the beginning of oxidative damage. Antioxidants inhibits the production of free radicals which can be used to damage lipids and proteins in the body. Regarding lipids, polyunsaturated fatty acids are primary targets when free radicals are created through the oxidation. Hyperoxides can take over cells and the contents within such as the base-pairing of DNA to remodel its pairing creating many kinds of syndromes. An common antioxidant is ascorbic acid and their function is to terminate oxidation reactions. Studies show that degeneration can be prevented with antioxidants and possibly other nutrient based formulas. This also stems the idea that oxidative damage can be replinished and repaired from damaged fatty acids through the consumption of more fatty acids.

Fatty Acids Essential to Mitosis?

Article Title: Aberrant mitosis in fission yeast mutants defective in fatty acid synthetase and acetyl CoA carboxylase.

Article Author(s): S Saitoh, K Takahashi, K Nabeshima, Y Yamashita, Y Nakaseko, A Hirata, M Yanagida

Article Date: August 15, 1996

Article Link: http://jcb.rupress.org/content/134/4/949.abstract

Summary: Two yeast mutants that are highly sensitive to temperature known as cut6 and lsd1 both displayed a defect in the nuclear division process. The researchers observed that the two resulting daughter cells' nuclei differed dramatically in size, which is not supposed to happen in a normal cell division process. After further investigation of the two daughter cells, it was discovered that the sister chromatids did separate in the mutant lsd cells, but only condensed in one of the two daughter cells' nuclei. Additional, they observed "unequal separation of nonchromosonal nuclear structures" in the daughter cells. The cut6+ and lsd1+ genes are two essential genes that encode acetyl CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthetase, which are the two key enzymes for fatty acid synthesis. The disruption of the gene lsd1+ leads to the creation of the lsd phenotype. An inhibitor of fatty acid synthesis known as Cerulenin actually naturally produced the lsd phenotype in the wild. This drug caused cells to die during cell mitosis. After observing all this, scientists concluded that "a reduced level of fatty acid thus led to impaired separation of non-chromosonal nuclear components." With this in mind, scientists concluded that fatty acids are responsible for the equal separation of the mother nucleus into the two daughter cells.

Synaptic Integration

Title: Synaptic Integration
Author: Sarah J Etherington, Susan E Atkinson, Greg J Stuart, Stephen R Williams
Date: May 2010
Link:http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000208.html

Summary:
Synaptic transmission involves the sending of impulse. First, when action potential reaches the axon terminal, it depolarizes the membrane and opens voltage-gated sodium ion channels. This opens the channels for calcium ion to sense the protein and interacts with SNARE proteins which mediate vesicle fusion. Neurotransmitters are released into synaptic cleft during this fusion and diffuse to bind with receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane. This process opens ion channels, and the binding of the neurotransmitters is reversed. The Synaptic integration is the computational process by which an individual neuron processes its synaptic inputs and converts them into an output signal. Synaptic integrity, often caused by neural degeneration, is the completeness of the synaptic integration. The size, shape, location of synaptic inputs, and expression of voltage-gated channels can affect the synaptic intergration.











Supplemental material:
https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/the-nervous-system-35/how-neurons-communicate-200/synaptic-transmission-763-11996/images/fig-ch35_02_07/

Too Good To Be True?

Excess Omega-3 Fatty Acids Could Lead To Negative Health Effects
By Norman Hord, Sonjoy Gosh, and Eric Gurzell
10/28/13
http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2013/oct/excess-omega-3-fatty-acids-could-lead-negative-health-effects

Bad Side Effects of Omega 3 Supplements
By Bethany Fong
7/27/15
http://www.livestrong.com/article/110916-bad-side-effects-omega-supplements/


With all this research Chem. Research has conducted, omega-3's seem to be some type of miracle drug.  With omega-3's having positive effects on eyesight, cognitive development, diabetes, skin disorders, psychological disorders, depression, heart attack recovery, and muscle development, it makes omega-3's benefits seem to good to be true.  This assumption is partially true; omega-3's have both negative side effects and issues with over consumption on the body.

As with most every supplement there are some side effects to be wary of, and with omega-3's, these include bleeding, intestinal discomfort, hypotension, and high blood sugar levels.  Omega-3's affect on bleeding is that they can cause increased chances of bleeding especially with those on blood thinners.  Omega-3's can also cause issues and discomfort with digestive system.  The next side effect can be a negative or a positive and that is omega-3's cause hypotension, a decrease in blood pressure.  Lastly, omega-3's can increase blood sugar especially with those who are diabetic.

Too much of anything can be bad for you and this is true with omega-3's.  Omega-3's taken in extreme excess can have negative effects.  This comes from the anti inflammatory properties of omega-3's and because of this they can have negative effects on the immune system and its ability to react to microbial pathogens.

Depressive patients have lower levels of Omega-3 fatty acids in Red Blood Cell Membranes

Article: Depletion of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Levels in Red Blood Cell Membranes of Depressive Patients
Authors: Malcolm Peet, Brendan Murphy, Janet Shay, and David Horrobin
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247120007_Depletion_of_Omega3_Fatty_Acid_Levels_in_Red_Blood_Cell_Membranes_of_Depressive_Patients

This article is about the hypothesis that depletion of cell membrane n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), particularly docosahexanoic acid (DHA), may be a key factor in depression. The researchers measured the fatty acid composition of phospholipid in cell membranes from red blood cells (RBC) of 15 depressive patients and 15 healthy control patients. The results were that depressive patients showed a deplation of n3 PUFA and DHA. The conclusions suggest that RBC membranes in depressive patients show evidence of oxidative damage.
Depression has increased rapidly during this century. It is likely that people have been taking in more saturated fatty acids and less polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and the balance of PUFA is shifted toward more n6 and less n3.
Maes et al 1996 research showed that depressive patients had a decrease in total n3 fatty acids and also reduced 18:3n3 and 20:5n3 in serum cholesteryl esters in major depressed patients.
This study also shows that depression is linked with the balance of RBC membrane PUFA has shifted such that the arachidonic acid (AA) to DHA ratio is increased. Similar to the changes in plasma phospholipid composition in depressive patients (Maes and Adams). Structural abnormalities of erythroctye membranes have also been reported in depressive patients. Pettegrew at al 1993 research found a significant increase of molecular motion in the phospholipid head group and hydrocarbon core areas of RBC membranes in depressive patients. This could be linked to enzymatic defects in the membrane.
Omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA, can lower stress hormone production and maintain levels of brain anti-depressant chemical called brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Omega-3 deficiencies in the central nervous system can lead to physiological and structural changes to brain cells. This leads to alteration in mood-regulation serotonin and dopamine levels. Since Omega-3 fatty acids hep maintain the structure of the membrane, the depletion of these fatty acids leads to the nerve cell to be less fluid and blocks regular chemical communication, transport and reception of mood regulating chemicals.

Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Prevent Atrial Fibrillation Associated With Heart Failure but Not Atrial Tachycardia Remodeling

Title: Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Prevent Atrial Fibrillation Associated With Heart Failure but Not Atrial Tachycardia Remodeling

Link: http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/116/19/2101.short

Authors: Masao Sakabe, Akiko Shiroshita-Takeshita, Ange Maguy, Chloe Dumesnil, Anil Nigam, Tack-Ki Leung and Stanley Nattel

Summary: Many previous studies examined the effects of a large amount of Omega-3 (or more generally, Poly-Unsaturated) Fatty Acids administered over a short time period on heart health. The data from this study, however, was the result of orally-administered, daily amounts of PUFA’s over the period of a few weeks. Results in previous studies have been conflicting, mostly due to the difference in administration of the PUFAs.

In this study the effects of Omega-3’s were studied in dogs who had been artificially induced to a greater heart rate (in both the atria and ventricle), with appropriate controls. Both electrical remodeling (permanent irregular heartbeat) and structural remodeling (scar tissue) were induced as a result of the tachypacing. In the dogs, omega-3’s didn’t have a large impact on the atrial tachycardia-induced electrical remodeling, but did attenuate the effects of structural remodeling due to the congestive heart failure caused by the irregular heartbeat.

This was hypothesized to be the result of omega-3’s preventing the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase chains. Among many other things, MAPks promote the inflammatory response and contribute to mitosis. Reducing their activation lessens inflammation and prevents fibrosis in the heart.

Fatty Acids and ADHD: Brain and Phospholipid Composition

Title: Fatty acid status and behavioural symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adolescents: A case-control study

Link: https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2891-7-8

Authors: Ashley L. Colter, Caroline Cutler, and Kelly Anne Meckling

Summary: A study compared the dietary intake of 11 ADHD adolescents to 12 similarly aged controls. The cause of ADHD is known to have many factors, involving biological influence and environmental influence. Within the brain, there are four important fatty acids: dihomogammalinolenic acid (20:3n-6, DGLA) arachidonic acid (20:4n-6, AA), Eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3 EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA). AA and play a major role in the structure of the neuronal membrane and make around 20% of the dry mass of the brain. It is possible that a lack of omega-3 fatty acids, or altered metabolic handling of the fatty acids listed previously, could lead to the symptoms observed by adolescents with ADHD. To test this, 11 children ranging from ten to sixteen were recruited, and 12 similarly aged children were used as a control group. It was found that the ADHD group consumed more saturated fats and trans fatty acids, and both groups had consumed the same amount of omega-3 fatty acids of ALA, EPA, DHA. However, a phospholipid analysis of red blood cell samples showed that the total omega-3 fatty acid levels of the ADHD group were lower than that of the control group. The ratio of omega-3 fatty acids to omega-6 fatty acids were also significantly lower in the ADHD group.

Although the ADHD group consumed diets rich in fats, they had a significantly lower level of DHA, and a lower ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in red blood cell phospholipids. Because the study size is small, more research is necessary to determine if supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids will influence ADHD behaviors in patients.

Differential Effects Between the Omega-3, Brain, and Age

Title: Dietary (n-3) Fatty Acids and Brain Development

Author: Sheila M. Innis

Link: http://jn.nutrition.org/content/137/4/855.short    

Summary: DHA, also known as docosahexaenoic acid [22:6(n-3)], is known for being the main provider to the biological system from (n-3) fatty acids. These fatty acids are essential dietary nutrients that supports the nervous tissues to allow them to function properly and grow. The fatty acids can be metabolized through the process of Delta-6 desaturation and Delta-5 desaturation in the endoplastmic reticulum (ER). From EPA to DHA the process requires two sequential elongnations of EPA (24:6(n-3)). Insufficient dietary of (n-3) fatty acids produces increased desaturation in (n-6) DPA (Docasepentaenoic acid). Consuming ALA converts to low amounts of DHA in humans (<1% dietary ALA). With these proofs, it is suggested to consume straight DHA foods instead of alternative fatty-acid foods (ALA & EPA (n-3)). The dietary DHA is absorbed terrifically to the plasma and blood cell lipids. Understanding this gives an hypothesis to how it applies to the theory of affecting the brain. Autopsies performed on infants demonstrates ~15% less brain cortex DHA who took formulas that contained no DHA compared to the ones who did.There are hypothesis that the lipid-bound DHA in membrane bilayers plays a role with the synapses of the brain. The functions with hydrophobic properties limits to activities such as intense flexibility and interaction with membrane proteins. Therefore, this affects the speed of signal transduction, neurotransmission, and lipid rafts. This gives the theory that excess amounts of DHA can be used to enhance neuron synapses making way for quicker reaction. And insufficient amounts of DHA may open doors for premature brain development and begin the genesis of brain disorders.

Connection: The journal ties between all types of ages delving from the study of infants to fully grown adults. Predictions made from this journal also provide hypothesis on how quick reaction time can help athletes. We have done some shallow research already on how DHA affects athletes and this journal supports the other article on a molecular level. This also ties in with someone else's early articles about omega-3 and cognitive correlations.

Benefits of Omega-3 on aged SHR

Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5479998_Aged_male_and_female_spontaneously_hypertensive_rats_benefit_from_n-3_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_supplementation
Title: Aged male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats benefit from n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation
Author: M. MITAŠÍKOVÁ, S. ŠMIDOVÁ1, A. MACSALIOVÁ, V. KNEZL2, K. DLUGOŠOVÁ, Ľ. OKRUHLICOVÁ, P. WEISMANN3, N. TRIBULOVÁ

Summary:
       The experiments are conducted on 14 month-old spontaneously hypertensive rats(SHR) for 2 months. There are two groups: one group of 24 receives omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, and the other group of 24 doesn't. At the end of the experiment, the SHRs' body weight and blood pressure are measured. With these data, the cardioprotective effects of omega-3 are investigated. The result shows several improvements: the decline of blood pressure, suppression of ventricular fibrillation, preservation of cardiomyocytes, enhancement of metabolism enzyme activity, and augmentation of capillary density. Because of increase of alkaline phosphatase (AIP) and suppression of DPP4 activity, the results indicate Omega-3 affects capillary endothelium function. AIP breaks down phosphate esters and has high activities in cell membranes, such as capillary endothelium. And, the data shows that untreated SHRs have lower capillary AIP and higher DPP4 activity. The suppression of DPP4 activity by Omega-3 can be beneficial for aged hypertensive rat heart. The conclusion is both male and female SHRs benefit from omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid because of the suppression of arrhythmias, though the mechanisms need further studies.

Muscles and Omega-3s

Title: Omega-3 supplementation alters mitochondrial membrane composition and respiration kinetics in human skeletal muscle

Link: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.2013.267336/full

Author: E.A.F. Herbst, S. Paglialunga, C. Gerling, J. Whitfield, K. Mukai, A. Chabowski, G.J.F. Heigenhauser, L.L. Spriet, G.P. Holloway

The research done by these scientists supports the claim that a diet enriched with omega-3 fatty acids will show an increase in omega-3 concentration in the mitochondrial membrane of human muscle tissue. This leads to the assumption that more ATP to be created during oxidative phosphorylation. However, direct evidence suggesting improved mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation does not exist in human skeletal muscle. But, it has been shown to improve the efficiency of oxygen use in in the hear tissue of rats, which leads to the question of whether humans also have improved mitochondrial respiratory function with omega-3 PUFA supplementation. Said research was not discussed in this article.

In addition, the increased concentration of omega-3 fatty acids in the skeletal muscle tissue displaces the omega-6 fatty acids from some phsopholipid species, which can decrease inflammation.

Omega-3's Role In Synaptic Integrity

Title: Endogenous Signaling by Omega-3 Docosahexaenoic Acid-derived Mediators Sustains Homeostatic Synaptic and Circuitry Integrity

Author: Nicolas G. Bazan, Alberto E. Musto, Eric J. Knott

Link: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12035-011-8200-6

Summary: The system of synapses and circuits within the brain is extremely complex, and has to be maintained by a variety of factors including "excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission, neurotrophins, gene regulation, and [other] factors". Almost all components of the brain circuit (dendrites, synaptic membranes, other membranes in the nervous system) contain high levels of DHA. DHA is also known as docosahexaenoic acid, and it is a main component of the "omega-3 essential fatty acid family." This DHA in the nervous system helps to protect the nervous system, as well as help with one's memory and vision. After observing that the amount of free (unesterified) DHA molecules found in the brain rapidly increases during the onset of seizures or brain injury, scientists began to hypothesize that DHA-derived docosanoids "set in motion endogenous signaling to sustain homeostatic synaptic and circuit integrity." Synaptic integrity is "a functional synaptic unit with unimpaired neuronal transmission". This hypothesis was offered largely due to the discovery of the neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), which is the first-uncovered bioactive docosanoid formed from free DHA (through 15-LOX-1). NPD1 is anti-inflammatory and induces cell survival. Specifically, NPD1 "upregulates anti-apoptotic proteins and downregulates pro-apoptotic proteins in response to cellular oxidative stress and cytokine activation, leading to an overall pro-survival transcriptome". This research offers promise for medicinal related DHA-mediated signalling to help maintain synaptic integrity. To summarize, omega-3s (specifically DHA), can help maintain the synaptic integrity of an individual by utilizing endogenous signaling to prevent inflammation in the brain and induce cell survival.

Omega-3 Impact On Your Retina

Retinal Development  in Very-Low-Birth-Weight Infants Fed Diets Differing in Omega-3 Fatty Acids

file:///C:/Users/jbendell/Google%20Drive/AAAJunior/Research/Retina/2365.pdf

By David G. Birch, Eileen E. Birch, Dennis R. Hoffman, and Ricardo D. Uauy

To study the impact of fatty acids on the development of retinas, 81 infants were selected.  These 81 babies were on average about 5 weeks premature and once born werre selected to consume either natural breast milk or one of 3 formulas.  Formula A contained linoleic acid, but not many omega-3s.  Formula B contained linoleic acid, but no omega-3s.  Lastly, formula C, contained linoleic acid and omega-3s from marine oil.  These babies then went through full-field electroretinograms testing  about 30 weeks after being born.  These full-field ectroretinograms basically tested the functioning of the babies retinas.  The tests proved that omega-3s had a impact on the retinal development in babies.  For example, the Formula A babies tested significantly slower than the natural breast milk babies when tested for oscillatory movement. Oscillatory movement is basically the speed in which the eye is able to move.  Also though, no major difference were seen between all the babies in their cone b-waves and important part of retina health.

Borderline Personality Disorder Omega-3s

Article: Omega-3 Fatty Acid Treatment of Women With Borderline Personality Disorder: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study
Authors: Marcy C. Zanarini, Ed.D., and Frances R. Frankenburg, M.D.
Link: http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.167

This article described an experiment in which 30 females went through an 8-week, placebo controlled study of E-EPA for borderline personality disorder. 20 of the subjects recieved 1 g of E-EPA (while the others got placebo) and the E-EPA was superior to placebo in diminishing the agression and severity of the patients' depressive symptoms. Borderline personality disorder affects a person's mood and impulisive aggression, and most medications are only targeted towards some of the symptoms of the disorder so they do not work properly. However, omega-3 fatty acids are now recognized for their mental health benefits. EPA and DHA have important functions in the CNS because DHA is a major structural component of neuronal membranes and EPA has physiological functions that can affect neuronal activity. Biomedichal studies have shown that many patients with poor mental health had reduced levels of omega-3 fatty acids in red blood cell membranes. Overall the results of this trial suggest that EPA is a nutriceutical agent that could be beneficial to the treatment of women with borderline personality disorder. The women reported no clinically relevant side effects and these results were consistent with the findings of reports of omega-3 fatty acids as a treatment for bipolar disorder.

Research Topics: Molecular Basis

Retina development: Jack
Brain synapses: Kevin & Anthony
Recovery time post-workout: Lauren
Heart attack remodeling - Ellen
ADHD attentiveness - Nick
Oxygen transfer & capillary beds - Charlie
Mental disorder: borderline personality disorders - Taylor
Mental disorder: borderline personality disorders - Tessa
Cognitive function: Reading comprehension - Bajaj

Assignment:
Using Google Scholar, find journal articles relevant to your topic. The article should be in depth and detailed. It should be an article that you have to read, re-read, and re-read again to fully comprehend. The topic must be dealt with at a molecular level, specifically explaining the role or effect of fatty acids.

Post on the blog, the usual logistics and the connection (at a molecular level) with omega-3s and your topic. Be specific.This summary should be at least 8-10 sentences.

This is due October 3.

Textbook Presentation Slide: Lipids & Membranes

With each student taking a section of the lipid & membrane chapter, they created three slides and presented information within their section. This file is the result of their collaborative efforts.

Heart Attack Recovery

Title: Omega-3 Fatty Acids from Fish Oil, may aid healing after heart attack

Link: http://newsroom.heart.org/news/omega-3-fatty-acids-from-fish-oil-may-aid-healing-after-heart-attack

Author: Bobak Heydari

Summary: (8-10 sent)
The American Heart Association journal, Circulation, has reported that taking high doses of omega three fatty acids every day for 6 months after a heart attack will improve heart function and reduce scarring in the muscle that is undamaged.

Heart Attack Remodeling is what happens after a heart attack when the heart's shape and function is altered. It can possibly lead to heart failure. It was already known that omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil could improve survival for patients, but in the Omega-Remodel randomized clinical trial, it was discovered that the structure and condition of the tissue of the heart could also be improved post-heart attack.

The study involved 360 heart attack survivors. They all started the dosage of omega-3 or placebo within a month of the heart attack. In the trial, one group of patients took a placebo while another took 4 grams of omega-3 fatty acids every day for 6 months. Overall, they had a 5.8% reduction in the left ventricular end-systolic volume index (a marker used to predict the outcome of a patient after a heart attack) and a 5.6% reduction in measurement of scarred connective tissue, or fibrosis, formation in non-damaged heart muscle. Simply put, Omega-3 fatty acids allow the heart to contract better and reduces fibrosis. There was also a marked reduce in biomarkers for inflammation, which would mean that omega-3's are anti-inflammatory.



Connection: (4-6 sent) We already knew that omega-3's are good for heart, brain, and muscle health. In Anthony's first article, he talked a little bit about reduced fibrosis after heart attacks, and this article delves a little deeper into that. We know that fatty acids are an important part of cell membranes This is most likely is a vital part of maintaining flexibility in non-damaged parts of the heart tissue.

Omega-3, The New Superhero!

Title: 10 Reasons Every Lifter, Runner And Athlete Needs Omega-3S

Author: K. Aleisha Fetters

Link: http://www.mensfitness.com/nutrition/supplements/10-reasons-every-lifter-runner-and-athlete-needs-omega-3s-0

Summary: Overall, Omega-3 can also increase your recovery speed, increase your muscle growth over night, increase your reaction time, reduce muscle soreness, reduce injuries, and possibly achieve PR's faster than your normal pace (better sports performance). Specifically, muscles tear in your body and the Omega-3 specializes in repairing these tears, therefore, allowing a quicker recovery. After excercising, your body transforms the consumed protein into proteins for your muscles. That process is called protein synthesis; which is increased with Omega-3. Injuries are also prevented by decreasing the tissue degrading in your body therefore boosting the blood and oxygen flowing into your muscles. Not only does do these fatty acids boost your athletic performance, but they also maintain keeping the important organs in your body healthy. The human body cannot produce Omega-3's so we must rely on our diet. There are three types of Omega-3 fatty acids: EPA, DHA, and ALA. EPA and DHA are the chemically long chained fatty acids that you find from fish. ALA are short chained fatty acids that you find in avocados and nuts. While all these benefits may seem too god to be true, our body can only burn through DHA, so the other two fatty acids must be converted into DHA before use. This process in our body is inefficient because the conversion only yields less than 2% of how much the body started to react with.

Connection Summary: This article touched basis in the introduction to how there is already scientifically proven heart benefits from taking Omega-3. Many of us have also done some researches on how these fatty acids increase muscle strength and prevent injuries to multiple parts of the body. My first article specifically talked about how Omega-3 directly benefits the heart and its muscles. There seems to be a strong tie between the fatty acids and muscles in our body. And many other articles specifically focused on the DHA fatty acid because this demonstrates the most healing power out of all the other Omega-3 fatty acids.