Thursday, October 27, 2016
Omega-3 Retinal Impact And Issues Associated with Omega-3s
Here are my links not presented in the video, but on my power point slide
10/27/16
Wednesday, October 26, 2016
Monday, October 17, 2016
Influence of Omega-3's on Children's Cognitive Performance & Reading Comprehension
Link (Study): http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/111/1/e39.short
Link (n-3 Info): https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evolutionary-psychiatry/201103/your-brain-omega-3
Article (Study): Maternal Supplementation With Very-Long-Chain n-3 Fatty Acids During Pregnancy and Lactation Augments Children’s IQ at 4 Years of Age
Article (n-3 Info): Your Brain On Omega 3
Article (n-3 Info): Your Brain On Omega 3
Authors (Study): , , , ,
Summary (Combined)
In a 2008 study conducted by the American Association of Pediatrics, researchers sought to more deeply look at the effects of Docosahecanoic (DHA) Omega - 3 fatty acids on a child's cognitive development. 590 mothers were recruited for the study, with 341 of them staying until the end.. Each was given either cod oil (containing DHA, eicosapentaenoic acid, and other Omega-3 fatty acids) or corn oil (containing linoleic acid α-linolenic acid) through 3 months after their delivery. At age 4, each 90 of the children who had been born to the subject mothers came back in for cognitive testing. The test measured a number of verbal and nonverbal comprehension and abilities. Dietary information was then obtained, showing that all the children had been breastfed through at least three months. When the results of cognitive performance were compared to the dietary information, clear patterns were shown. For example, the children of the mothers who had taken cod oil tended to outperform the children of the mothers who had taken corn oil. Also, the performance of the children at age 4 "correlated significantly" with overall maternal intake of DHA's and eicosapentaenoic acid.
It is theorized that the maternal diet has so much effect on the brain since Omega-3's are essential for the brain, but cannot be synthesized effectively by the body and thus must be consumed. The brain is known to be made of largely of fats, much of which makes up the cell membranes of neurons which electrical signals pass through. However, unlike most parts of the body, in a healthy brain the only fats used in large amounts are Omega-3's and certain Omega-6 derived versions, which is why they are necessary for brain function. During pregnancy and the first 18 months after birth, the brain of a child goes through massive growth. Therefore, a lack of Omega-3's would logically "starve" the brain for resources during this time, likely why the phenomenon of correlation between fatty acid concentration and cognitive performance takes place.Wednesday, October 12, 2016
Neuron Fluidity
Author: Marlene P. Freeman, M.D.; Joseph R. Hibbeln, M.D.;
Katherine L. Wisner, M.D., M.S.; John M. Davis, M.D.;
David Mischoulon, M.D., Ph.D.; Malcolm Peet, M.B., F.R.C.Psych.;
Paul E. Keck, Jr., M.D.; Lauren B. Marangell, M.D.; Alexandra J. Richardson, Ph.D.; James Lake, M.D.; and Andrew L. Stoll, M.D.
Title: Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Evidence Basis for
Treatment and Future Research in Psychiatry
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6606932_Omega-3_fatty_acids_Evidence_basis_for_treatment_and_future_research_in_psychiatry
Article Date: January 2007
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Article Date: January 2007
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Author: Omega-3 DHA and EPA for Cognition, Behavior, and Mood: Clinical Findings and Structural Functional Synergies with Cell Membrane Phospholipids
Title: Parris M. Kidd, PhD
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Parris_Kidd2/publication/5775265_Kidd_P_M_Omega-3_DHA_and_EPA_for_cognition_behavior_and_mood_clinical_findings_and_structural-functional_synergies_with_cell_membrane_phospholipids_Altern_Med_Rev_12_207-227/links/56fa1af508ae38d710a307e3.pdf
Article Date: October 2007
Arachidonic acid (AA) is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid. It competes for membrane space with EPA and DHA. AA creates pro-inflammatory eicosanoids which are believed to exacerbate dysfunction of immune, cardiovascular, retnal, bone, and central nervous systems. The omega-6 fatty acid EPA competes with AA for enzymatic action. This competition reduces the inflammatory response by EPA. EPA is crucial to provide anti-inflammatory effects by balancing the pro-inflammatory responses of AA. AA are not altogether "bad" fatty acids. They are "bad" with the chronically unbalanced American diet. The disproportionate EPA/AA ratio can lead to heightened risk for pro-inflammatory events that foster degenerative diseases.
Article Date: October 2007
Arachidonic acid (AA) is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid. It competes for membrane space with EPA and DHA. AA creates pro-inflammatory eicosanoids which are believed to exacerbate dysfunction of immune, cardiovascular, retnal, bone, and central nervous systems. The omega-6 fatty acid EPA competes with AA for enzymatic action. This competition reduces the inflammatory response by EPA. EPA is crucial to provide anti-inflammatory effects by balancing the pro-inflammatory responses of AA. AA are not altogether "bad" fatty acids. They are "bad" with the chronically unbalanced American diet. The disproportionate EPA/AA ratio can lead to heightened risk for pro-inflammatory events that foster degenerative diseases.
EPA, GLA, and AA effects on rats
Title: Arachidonic Acid Offsets the Effects on Mouse Brain and Behavior of a Diet with a Low (n-6):(n-3) Ratio and Very High Levels of Docosahexaenoic Acid
Author:
P. E. Wainwright*,4,
H.-C. Xing*,
L. Mutsaers*,
D. McCutcheon*, and
D. Kyle†
Dec 2003
Summary:
Date:
PUFAs are an important part of membrane phospholipids in
microglia (immune system glial cell), neurons, and immune cells. EPA, GLA, and
AA play different and big roles in membrane fluidity, lipid peroxidation, eicosanoid
production, receptor and channel functions, and gene expressions. This can be
altered when the phospholipid content of these membranes are changed.
Interleukins were injected into rats, causing
inflammatory-sickness response and stress/anxiety. It did the latter by
increasing the concentration of corticosterone.
Ethyl-EPA supplemented in the diet reduced the
stress/anxiety behavior of rats in a maze. It did this by reducing the
concentration of serum corticosterone.
Another group of rats were supplemented with an omega 6
fatty acid, Ethyl GLA (Ethyl-gamma-linolenic acid). It did not effect stress
behaviors or corticosterone concentration. However, both Ethyl EPA and Ethyl
GLA reduced prostaglandin secretion and increased secretion of anti-inflammatory
cytokines. Therefore, they both reduced the inflammatory-sickness.
Another group was supplemented with AA, the omega-6 fatty
acid Arachidonic Acid. It increased anxiety behavior, increased the basal
inflammatory response, and raised corticosterone concentrations. However, it did
not enhance the effects caused by the injected interleukine.
AA, an omega-6 fatty acid, can be converted to
pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. They can induce the inflammatory response. Though
GLA is the precursor of AA, it inhibits inflammation. EPA, one of the precursors,
of DHA reduces proinflammatory cytokines by reducing membrane AA synthesis. However,
having an optimal ratio of n-3 and n6 fatty acids is important for normal
signal transduction.
Oscillatory movement
Article 1 Link: http://iovs.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2179008
Article 1 Author: D G Birch; E E Birch; D R Hoffman; R U Uauy
Article 1 Date: July, 1992
Article 1 Title: Retina development in very-low-birth-weight infants fed diets differing in omega-3 fatty acids.
Article 2 Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11888/
Article 2 Author: W Hodge, D Barnes, HM Schachter, Y Pan, EC Lowcock, L Zhang, M Sampson, A Morrison, K Tran, M Miguelez, and G Lewin.
Article 2 Date: July 2005
Article 2 Title: 117 effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Eye Health: Summary
Background: Oscillatory movement is the motion in the eye which repeats itself after equal intervals of time. This is related to "saccadic movement" which is rapid changes in position of the eyeball. This also relates to involuntary movement of the eye when the eye fixes in on an object.
Oscillatory movement and retina development is affected by a-linolenic acid deficiency and by a deficiency of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in infant formulas and term diets.
DHA is found highest concentration in the retina. Especially in the disk membranes of the outer segments of photoreceptor cells.
DHA is half of the fatty acids in the phospholipids of rod outer segment membranes.
Studies show that the DHA influences the biophysical properties of membranes through its high polyunsaturation, this may help to create a membrane that accommodates the dynamic behavior of rhodopsin during the photoreceptive process. (process that converts light into electrical signals in the rod cells, cone cells, and photosensitive cells in the retina of the eye).
DHA may also modulate the activity of membrane bound enzymes and receptors, kinetics of the membrane transport systems.
The Effects of N-3 Fatty Acids on Neural Membrane Fluidity
Article 1 Title: Effects of fatty acid unsaturation numbers on membrane fluidity and α-secretase-dependent amyloid precursor protein processing
Article 2 Title: Handbook of Essential Fatty Acid Biology
Article 1 Authors: Xiaoguang Yang, Wenwen Sheng, Grace Y. Sun, and James C-M. Lee
Article 2 Authors: David I. Mostofsky, Shlomo Yehuda
Article 1 Date: December 22nd, 2010
Article 2 Date: Copyright 1997
Article 1 Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3040984/
Article 2 Link: https://books.google.com/books?id=omXmBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA443&lpg=PA443&dq=n-3+neuron+membrane+fluidity&source=bl&ots=X9Ppm9WauM&sig=zcs_nqHXZnwuYgp_gn3AQ9ohDpo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiT573yh9bPAhUJLyYKHT0BBLcQ6AEILDAC#v=onepage&q=n-3%20neuron%20membrane%20fluidity&f=false
Summary: The membranes of neurons play a large role in the transmuting electrical signals from one neuron to the next. Thus the lipid bi layers are highly important to transmission of signals throughout the nervous system. Research published by nuerochem suggests that the high concentration of PUFA's and omega-3 fatty acids plays a role on the effectiveness of the membrane. The study worked with Alzheimer's patients, who were experiencing psychological issues. The team found that with AA, EPA, and DHA supplementation for 24 hours, membrane fluidity was increased. It is theorized that this is due to the the bent nature of PUFA's, which prevent "tight packing" of the lipid bilayers and thus increase fluidity. The importance of this is recognized by work published by David I. Mostofsky and Shlomo Yehuda, which states that membrane fluidity is crucial to the optimal performance of the neuron membane in transferring electrical signals. They go on to say that a balanced amount of n-3 an n-6 can help modulate the neuronal fluidity and thus improve neural performance.
Article 2 Title: Handbook of Essential Fatty Acid Biology
Article 1 Authors: Xiaoguang Yang, Wenwen Sheng, Grace Y. Sun, and James C-M. Lee
Article 2 Authors: David I. Mostofsky, Shlomo Yehuda
Article 1 Date: December 22nd, 2010
Article 2 Date: Copyright 1997
Article 1 Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3040984/
Article 2 Link: https://books.google.com/books?id=omXmBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA443&lpg=PA443&dq=n-3+neuron+membrane+fluidity&source=bl&ots=X9Ppm9WauM&sig=zcs_nqHXZnwuYgp_gn3AQ9ohDpo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiT573yh9bPAhUJLyYKHT0BBLcQ6AEILDAC#v=onepage&q=n-3%20neuron%20membrane%20fluidity&f=false
Summary: The membranes of neurons play a large role in the transmuting electrical signals from one neuron to the next. Thus the lipid bi layers are highly important to transmission of signals throughout the nervous system. Research published by nuerochem suggests that the high concentration of PUFA's and omega-3 fatty acids plays a role on the effectiveness of the membrane. The study worked with Alzheimer's patients, who were experiencing psychological issues. The team found that with AA, EPA, and DHA supplementation for 24 hours, membrane fluidity was increased. It is theorized that this is due to the the bent nature of PUFA's, which prevent "tight packing" of the lipid bilayers and thus increase fluidity. The importance of this is recognized by work published by David I. Mostofsky and Shlomo Yehuda, which states that membrane fluidity is crucial to the optimal performance of the neuron membane in transferring electrical signals. They go on to say that a balanced amount of n-3 an n-6 can help modulate the neuronal fluidity and thus improve neural performance.
Now You Can SEE Why Omega-3s Are Important
Title: "What are the benefits of omega-3 fatty acids (omega-3s) for children- 12 months and older?"
Author: Professor Andrew Sinclair
Author: Professor Andrew Sinclair
Article Date: August 2007
DHA is a long chain
omega-3 fatty acid with 22 carbon atoms and 6 cis double bonds that is found in
high proportions in membrane in the retina. The most DHA in membrane lipids is
in the disk membranes of the rod outer segments of photoreceptor cells in the
retina. The photoreceptor cell is a specialized type of neuron in the retina
that converts photons (particles of light) into electrical signals. The outer
segments of photoreceptor cells are specialized membranes that initiate the
process of vision so DHA acts as a molecular spring when the light activates
rhodopsin (a purple-red light sensitive pigment in the retina). The mechanism
of DHA's benefits to brain and retinal enhancement is that DHA is formed from
internally originated mediators that are also known as
"docosatrienes". These docosatrienes can be found in blood,
leukocytes (white blood cells), murine brain, and glial cells (which support
and protect neurons). All of these parts of the body have different impacts on
the eye, so as DHA is an essential fatty acid, our body craves these omega-3s,
which can enhance retinal development. As I researched leukocytes, I came
across another fascinating article which explained that the small blurry dots
that can appear when a person looks at the sun are actually white blood cells
that you are seeing in your own eye- these cells are also known as leukocytes!
Omega-3's and the Effect it has on Serotonin and Dopamine production.
Title: Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
Authors: Kuan-Pin Su, Shih-Yi Huang, Chih-Chiang Chiu, Winston W. Shen.
Date: August 2003
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10638701_Omega-3_fatty_acids_in_major_depressive_disorder_A_preliminary_double-blind_placebo-controlled_trial
Summary: People with depression have been shown to have significantly lowered omega-3 PUFA levels, including EPA and DHA in cell tissue. Communities that consume a higher amount of fish are shown to have lower prevalence of depression. This eight week study was to test if these two facts were merely coincidental or if there is a correlation between omega-3 PUFA levels and depression. Cerebral (brain) cell membranes are composed of PUFAs that can only be obtained from a diet. A lack of these PUFAs can alter membrane micro-structure, which results in abnormal signal transduction (the transmission of signals of the cell's exterior to its interior), and alter neurotransmission.
Twenty-two patients were studied, with twelve receiving omega-3 PUFA supplements, and ten receiving placebos. What the study found is that EPA was responsible for improving schizophrenic symptoms and depressive disorders, and DHA was found to play an important role in functioning of neurotransmitters, including serotonin. In the frontal cortex of rats with low brain concentrations of DHA, there was a 44% increase of serotonin-2A receptor number. This could potentially be a marker of reduced serotonin function. Patients that received omega-3 PUFAs showed lower scores on the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, while the placebo group showed little reduction on their scores. This shows that there is a connection between omega-3 PUFA levels and depression.
Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency can alter serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission, as well as membrane micro-structure. It is hypothesized that omega-3 PUFAs can restore the altered membranes and neurotransmission in patients with depression.
Authors: Kuan-Pin Su, Shih-Yi Huang, Chih-Chiang Chiu, Winston W. Shen.
Date: August 2003
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10638701_Omega-3_fatty_acids_in_major_depressive_disorder_A_preliminary_double-blind_placebo-controlled_trial
Summary: People with depression have been shown to have significantly lowered omega-3 PUFA levels, including EPA and DHA in cell tissue. Communities that consume a higher amount of fish are shown to have lower prevalence of depression. This eight week study was to test if these two facts were merely coincidental or if there is a correlation between omega-3 PUFA levels and depression. Cerebral (brain) cell membranes are composed of PUFAs that can only be obtained from a diet. A lack of these PUFAs can alter membrane micro-structure, which results in abnormal signal transduction (the transmission of signals of the cell's exterior to its interior), and alter neurotransmission.
Twenty-two patients were studied, with twelve receiving omega-3 PUFA supplements, and ten receiving placebos. What the study found is that EPA was responsible for improving schizophrenic symptoms and depressive disorders, and DHA was found to play an important role in functioning of neurotransmitters, including serotonin. In the frontal cortex of rats with low brain concentrations of DHA, there was a 44% increase of serotonin-2A receptor number. This could potentially be a marker of reduced serotonin function. Patients that received omega-3 PUFAs showed lower scores on the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, while the placebo group showed little reduction on their scores. This shows that there is a connection between omega-3 PUFA levels and depression.
Omega-3 fatty acid deficiency can alter serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission, as well as membrane micro-structure. It is hypothesized that omega-3 PUFAs can restore the altered membranes and neurotransmission in patients with depression.
Anatomy of the Neuron along with Oxidative Stress
Article 1(Neurons): The Human Memory: Neurons & Synapses
Article 2(Oxidative Stress): Antioxidants, Oxidative Damage & Oxygen Deprivation Stress: a Review
Authors of Article 1: Luke Mastin
Authors of Article 2: Olga Blokhina, Eija Virolainen, and Kurt V. Fagerstedt
Date 1: 2010
Date 2: 16 January 2002
Link 1: http://www.human-memory.net/brain_neurons.html
Link 2: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/91/2/179.short
Summary: A neuron is a cell possessing eletrical capabilities that allows them to connect to other neurons to transmit data throughout our body. Neurons play a huge role in the central nervous system. They relay information such as sensory (sight, noise, touch, smell) and spinal transmission for the spinal system. The generalization of the anatomy of the neuron can be made up in three parts: the soma, dendrites, and axon. The soma of the neuron is the bulk of the organism and the dendrites are the figures that branch of the soma to create neurotic synapses. The axon connects to the soma which branches off the to form axon terminals and can be used to transmit signals from axon to other neurons. So in a general picture of how a synapse works, the axon from a separate neuron will come in contact with a dendrite or soma from another neuron and send electrochemical impulses for transmissions. The axon terminal contains numerous (thousands) amounts of neurotransmitters. Examples of neurotransmitters are glutamate, GABA, dopamine, melatonin, and seratonin.
Oxidative damage is where the production of reactive oxygen or superoxide are produced in the body to lead to oxidative damage and stress. It is believed that these are the genesis for common symptoms and diseases such as ADHD, cancers, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis, and many more. If there is an increase in product of superoxide, then that means there will be a less amount of antioxidants being produced in the body. This is the beginning of oxidative damage. Antioxidants inhibits the production of free radicals which can be used to damage lipids and proteins in the body. Regarding lipids, polyunsaturated fatty acids are primary targets when free radicals are created through the oxidation. Hyperoxides can take over cells and the contents within such as the base-pairing of DNA to remodel its pairing creating many kinds of syndromes. An common antioxidant is ascorbic acid and their function is to terminate oxidation reactions. Studies show that degeneration can be prevented with antioxidants and possibly other nutrient based formulas. This also stems the idea that oxidative damage can be replinished and repaired from damaged fatty acids through the consumption of more fatty acids.
Article 2(Oxidative Stress): Antioxidants, Oxidative Damage & Oxygen Deprivation Stress: a Review
Authors of Article 1: Luke Mastin
Authors of Article 2: Olga Blokhina, Eija Virolainen, and Kurt V. Fagerstedt
Date 1: 2010
Date 2: 16 January 2002
Link 1: http://www.human-memory.net/brain_neurons.html
Link 2: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/91/2/179.short
Summary: A neuron is a cell possessing eletrical capabilities that allows them to connect to other neurons to transmit data throughout our body. Neurons play a huge role in the central nervous system. They relay information such as sensory (sight, noise, touch, smell) and spinal transmission for the spinal system. The generalization of the anatomy of the neuron can be made up in three parts: the soma, dendrites, and axon. The soma of the neuron is the bulk of the organism and the dendrites are the figures that branch of the soma to create neurotic synapses. The axon connects to the soma which branches off the to form axon terminals and can be used to transmit signals from axon to other neurons. So in a general picture of how a synapse works, the axon from a separate neuron will come in contact with a dendrite or soma from another neuron and send electrochemical impulses for transmissions. The axon terminal contains numerous (thousands) amounts of neurotransmitters. Examples of neurotransmitters are glutamate, GABA, dopamine, melatonin, and seratonin.
Oxidative damage is where the production of reactive oxygen or superoxide are produced in the body to lead to oxidative damage and stress. It is believed that these are the genesis for common symptoms and diseases such as ADHD, cancers, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis, and many more. If there is an increase in product of superoxide, then that means there will be a less amount of antioxidants being produced in the body. This is the beginning of oxidative damage. Antioxidants inhibits the production of free radicals which can be used to damage lipids and proteins in the body. Regarding lipids, polyunsaturated fatty acids are primary targets when free radicals are created through the oxidation. Hyperoxides can take over cells and the contents within such as the base-pairing of DNA to remodel its pairing creating many kinds of syndromes. An common antioxidant is ascorbic acid and their function is to terminate oxidation reactions. Studies show that degeneration can be prevented with antioxidants and possibly other nutrient based formulas. This also stems the idea that oxidative damage can be replinished and repaired from damaged fatty acids through the consumption of more fatty acids.
Fatty Acids Essential to Mitosis?
Article Title: Aberrant mitosis in fission yeast mutants defective in fatty acid synthetase and acetyl CoA carboxylase.
Article Author(s): , , , , , ,
August 15, 1996
http://jcb.rupress.org/content/134/4/949.abstract
Summary: Two yeast mutants that are highly sensitive to temperature known as cut6 and lsd1 both displayed a defect in the nuclear division process. The researchers observed that the two resulting daughter cells' nuclei differed dramatically in size, which is not supposed to happen in a normal cell division process. After further investigation of the two daughter cells, it was discovered that the sister chromatids did separate in the mutant lsd cells, but only condensed in one of the two daughter cells' nuclei. Additional, they observed "unequal separation of nonchromosonal nuclear structures" in the daughter cells. The cut6+ and lsd1+ genes are two essential genes that encode acetyl CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthetase, which are the two key enzymes for fatty acid synthesis. The disruption of the gene lsd1+ leads to the creation of the lsd phenotype. An inhibitor of fatty acid synthesis known as Cerulenin actually naturally produced the lsd phenotype in the wild. This drug caused cells to die during cell mitosis. After observing all this, scientists concluded that "a reduced level of fatty acid thus led to impaired separation of non-chromosonal nuclear components." With this in mind, scientists concluded that fatty acids are responsible for the equal separation of the mother nucleus into the two daughter cells.
Article Author(s): , , , , , ,
August 15, 1996
http://jcb.rupress.org/content/134/4/949.abstract
Summary: Two yeast mutants that are highly sensitive to temperature known as cut6 and lsd1 both displayed a defect in the nuclear division process. The researchers observed that the two resulting daughter cells' nuclei differed dramatically in size, which is not supposed to happen in a normal cell division process. After further investigation of the two daughter cells, it was discovered that the sister chromatids did separate in the mutant lsd cells, but only condensed in one of the two daughter cells' nuclei. Additional, they observed "unequal separation of nonchromosonal nuclear structures" in the daughter cells. The cut6+ and lsd1+ genes are two essential genes that encode acetyl CoA carboxylase and fatty acid synthetase, which are the two key enzymes for fatty acid synthesis. The disruption of the gene lsd1+ leads to the creation of the lsd phenotype. An inhibitor of fatty acid synthesis known as Cerulenin actually naturally produced the lsd phenotype in the wild. This drug caused cells to die during cell mitosis. After observing all this, scientists concluded that "a reduced level of fatty acid thus led to impaired separation of non-chromosonal nuclear components." With this in mind, scientists concluded that fatty acids are responsible for the equal separation of the mother nucleus into the two daughter cells.
Synaptic Integration
Title: Synaptic Integration
Author: Sarah J Etherington, Susan E Atkinson, Greg J Stuart, Stephen R Williams
Date: May 2010
Link:http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000208.html
Summary:
Synaptic transmission involves the sending of impulse. First, when action potential reaches the axon terminal, it depolarizes the membrane and opens voltage-gated sodium ion channels. This opens the channels for calcium ion to sense the protein and interacts with SNARE proteins which mediate vesicle fusion. Neurotransmitters are released into synaptic cleft during this fusion and diffuse to bind with receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane. This process opens ion channels, and the binding of the neurotransmitters is reversed. The Synaptic integration is the computational process by which an individual neuron processes its synaptic inputs and converts them into an output signal. Synaptic integrity, often caused by neural degeneration, is the completeness of the synaptic integration. The size, shape, location of synaptic inputs, and expression of voltage-gated channels can affect the synaptic intergration.
Supplemental material:
https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/the-nervous-system-35/how-neurons-communicate-200/synaptic-transmission-763-11996/images/fig-ch35_02_07/
Author: Sarah J Etherington, Susan E Atkinson, Greg J Stuart, Stephen R Williams
Date: May 2010
Link:http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000208.html
Summary:
Synaptic transmission involves the sending of impulse. First, when action potential reaches the axon terminal, it depolarizes the membrane and opens voltage-gated sodium ion channels. This opens the channels for calcium ion to sense the protein and interacts with SNARE proteins which mediate vesicle fusion. Neurotransmitters are released into synaptic cleft during this fusion and diffuse to bind with receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane. This process opens ion channels, and the binding of the neurotransmitters is reversed. The Synaptic integration is the computational process by which an individual neuron processes its synaptic inputs and converts them into an output signal. Synaptic integrity, often caused by neural degeneration, is the completeness of the synaptic integration. The size, shape, location of synaptic inputs, and expression of voltage-gated channels can affect the synaptic intergration.
Supplemental material:
https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/the-nervous-system-35/how-neurons-communicate-200/synaptic-transmission-763-11996/images/fig-ch35_02_07/
Too Good To Be True?
Excess Omega-3 Fatty Acids Could Lead To Negative Health Effects
By Norman Hord, Sonjoy Gosh, and Eric Gurzell
10/28/13
http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2013/oct/excess-omega-3-fatty-acids-could-lead-negative-health-effects
Bad Side Effects of Omega 3 Supplements
By Bethany Fong
7/27/15
http://www.livestrong.com/article/110916-bad-side-effects-omega-supplements/
With all this research Chem. Research has conducted, omega-3's seem to be some type of miracle drug. With omega-3's having positive effects on eyesight, cognitive development, diabetes, skin disorders, psychological disorders, depression, heart attack recovery, and muscle development, it makes omega-3's benefits seem to good to be true. This assumption is partially true; omega-3's have both negative side effects and issues with over consumption on the body.
As with most every supplement there are some side effects to be wary of, and with omega-3's, these include bleeding, intestinal discomfort, hypotension, and high blood sugar levels. Omega-3's affect on bleeding is that they can cause increased chances of bleeding especially with those on blood thinners. Omega-3's can also cause issues and discomfort with digestive system. The next side effect can be a negative or a positive and that is omega-3's cause hypotension, a decrease in blood pressure. Lastly, omega-3's can increase blood sugar especially with those who are diabetic.
Too much of anything can be bad for you and this is true with omega-3's. Omega-3's taken in extreme excess can have negative effects. This comes from the anti inflammatory properties of omega-3's and because of this they can have negative effects on the immune system and its ability to react to microbial pathogens.
By Norman Hord, Sonjoy Gosh, and Eric Gurzell
10/28/13
http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2013/oct/excess-omega-3-fatty-acids-could-lead-negative-health-effects
Bad Side Effects of Omega 3 Supplements
By Bethany Fong
7/27/15
http://www.livestrong.com/article/110916-bad-side-effects-omega-supplements/
With all this research Chem. Research has conducted, omega-3's seem to be some type of miracle drug. With omega-3's having positive effects on eyesight, cognitive development, diabetes, skin disorders, psychological disorders, depression, heart attack recovery, and muscle development, it makes omega-3's benefits seem to good to be true. This assumption is partially true; omega-3's have both negative side effects and issues with over consumption on the body.
As with most every supplement there are some side effects to be wary of, and with omega-3's, these include bleeding, intestinal discomfort, hypotension, and high blood sugar levels. Omega-3's affect on bleeding is that they can cause increased chances of bleeding especially with those on blood thinners. Omega-3's can also cause issues and discomfort with digestive system. The next side effect can be a negative or a positive and that is omega-3's cause hypotension, a decrease in blood pressure. Lastly, omega-3's can increase blood sugar especially with those who are diabetic.
Too much of anything can be bad for you and this is true with omega-3's. Omega-3's taken in extreme excess can have negative effects. This comes from the anti inflammatory properties of omega-3's and because of this they can have negative effects on the immune system and its ability to react to microbial pathogens.
Tuesday, October 4, 2016
Depressive patients have lower levels of Omega-3 fatty acids in Red Blood Cell Membranes
Article: Depletion of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Levels in Red Blood Cell Membranes of Depressive Patients
Authors: Malcolm Peet, Brendan Murphy, Janet Shay, and David Horrobin
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247120007_Depletion_of_Omega3_Fatty_Acid_Levels_in_Red_Blood_Cell_Membranes_of_Depressive_Patients
This article is about the hypothesis that depletion of cell membrane n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), particularly docosahexanoic acid (DHA), may be a key factor in depression. The researchers measured the fatty acid composition of phospholipid in cell membranes from red blood cells (RBC) of 15 depressive patients and 15 healthy control patients. The results were that depressive patients showed a deplation of n3 PUFA and DHA. The conclusions suggest that RBC membranes in depressive patients show evidence of oxidative damage.
Depression has increased rapidly during this century. It is likely that people have been taking in more saturated fatty acids and less polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and the balance of PUFA is shifted toward more n6 and less n3.
Maes et al 1996 research showed that depressive patients had a decrease in total n3 fatty acids and also reduced 18:3n3 and 20:5n3 in serum cholesteryl esters in major depressed patients.
This study also shows that depression is linked with the balance of RBC membrane PUFA has shifted such that the arachidonic acid (AA) to DHA ratio is increased. Similar to the changes in plasma phospholipid composition in depressive patients (Maes and Adams). Structural abnormalities of erythroctye membranes have also been reported in depressive patients. Pettegrew at al 1993 research found a significant increase of molecular motion in the phospholipid head group and hydrocarbon core areas of RBC membranes in depressive patients. This could be linked to enzymatic defects in the membrane.
Omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA, can lower stress hormone production and maintain levels of brain anti-depressant chemical called brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Omega-3 deficiencies in the central nervous system can lead to physiological and structural changes to brain cells. This leads to alteration in mood-regulation serotonin and dopamine levels. Since Omega-3 fatty acids hep maintain the structure of the membrane, the depletion of these fatty acids leads to the nerve cell to be less fluid and blocks regular chemical communication, transport and reception of mood regulating chemicals.
Authors: Malcolm Peet, Brendan Murphy, Janet Shay, and David Horrobin
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247120007_Depletion_of_Omega3_Fatty_Acid_Levels_in_Red_Blood_Cell_Membranes_of_Depressive_Patients
This article is about the hypothesis that depletion of cell membrane n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), particularly docosahexanoic acid (DHA), may be a key factor in depression. The researchers measured the fatty acid composition of phospholipid in cell membranes from red blood cells (RBC) of 15 depressive patients and 15 healthy control patients. The results were that depressive patients showed a deplation of n3 PUFA and DHA. The conclusions suggest that RBC membranes in depressive patients show evidence of oxidative damage.
Depression has increased rapidly during this century. It is likely that people have been taking in more saturated fatty acids and less polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and the balance of PUFA is shifted toward more n6 and less n3.
Maes et al 1996 research showed that depressive patients had a decrease in total n3 fatty acids and also reduced 18:3n3 and 20:5n3 in serum cholesteryl esters in major depressed patients.
This study also shows that depression is linked with the balance of RBC membrane PUFA has shifted such that the arachidonic acid (AA) to DHA ratio is increased. Similar to the changes in plasma phospholipid composition in depressive patients (Maes and Adams). Structural abnormalities of erythroctye membranes have also been reported in depressive patients. Pettegrew at al 1993 research found a significant increase of molecular motion in the phospholipid head group and hydrocarbon core areas of RBC membranes in depressive patients. This could be linked to enzymatic defects in the membrane.
Omega-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA, can lower stress hormone production and maintain levels of brain anti-depressant chemical called brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Omega-3 deficiencies in the central nervous system can lead to physiological and structural changes to brain cells. This leads to alteration in mood-regulation serotonin and dopamine levels. Since Omega-3 fatty acids hep maintain the structure of the membrane, the depletion of these fatty acids leads to the nerve cell to be less fluid and blocks regular chemical communication, transport and reception of mood regulating chemicals.
Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Prevent Atrial Fibrillation Associated With Heart Failure but Not Atrial Tachycardia Remodeling
Title: Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Prevent Atrial Fibrillation Associated With Heart Failure but Not Atrial Tachycardia Remodeling
Authors: , , , , , and
Many previous studies examined the effects of a large amount
of Omega-3 (or more generally, Poly-Unsaturated) Fatty Acids administered over
a short time period on heart health. The data from this study, however, was the
result of orally-administered, daily amounts of PUFA’s over the period of a few
weeks. Results in previous studies have been conflicting, mostly due to the
difference in administration of the PUFAs.
In this study the effects of Omega-3’s were studied in dogs
who had been artificially induced to a greater heart rate (in both the atria
and ventricle), with appropriate controls. Both electrical remodeling (permanent
irregular heartbeat) and structural remodeling (scar tissue) were induced as a
result of the tachypacing. In the dogs, omega-3’s didn’t have a large impact on
the atrial tachycardia-induced electrical remodeling, but did attenuate the
effects of structural remodeling due to the congestive heart failure caused by
the irregular heartbeat.
This was hypothesized to be the result of omega-3’s
preventing the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase chains. Among
many other things, MAPks promote the inflammatory response and contribute to
mitosis. Reducing their activation lessens inflammation and prevents fibrosis
in the heart.
Fatty Acids and ADHD: Brain and Phospholipid Composition
Title: Fatty acid status and behavioural symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in adolescents: A case-control study
Link: https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2891-7-8
Authors: Ashley L. Colter, Caroline Cutler, and Kelly Anne Meckling
Summary: A study compared the dietary intake of 11 ADHD adolescents to 12 similarly aged controls. The cause of ADHD is known to have many factors, involving biological influence and environmental influence. Within the brain, there are four important fatty acids: dihomogammalinolenic acid (20:3n-6, DGLA) arachidonic acid (20:4n-6, AA), Eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3 EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA). AA and play a major role in the structure of the neuronal membrane and make around 20% of the dry mass of the brain. It is possible that a lack of omega-3 fatty acids, or altered metabolic handling of the fatty acids listed previously, could lead to the symptoms observed by adolescents with ADHD. To test this, 11 children ranging from ten to sixteen were recruited, and 12 similarly aged children were used as a control group. It was found that the ADHD group consumed more saturated fats and trans fatty acids, and both groups had consumed the same amount of omega-3 fatty acids of ALA, EPA, DHA. However, a phospholipid analysis of red blood cell samples showed that the total omega-3 fatty acid levels of the ADHD group were lower than that of the control group. The ratio of omega-3 fatty acids to omega-6 fatty acids were also significantly lower in the ADHD group.
Although the ADHD group consumed diets rich in fats, they had a significantly lower level of DHA, and a lower ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in red blood cell phospholipids. Because the study size is small, more research is necessary to determine if supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids will influence ADHD behaviors in patients.
Link: https://nutritionj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1475-2891-7-8
Authors: Ashley L. Colter, Caroline Cutler, and Kelly Anne Meckling
Summary: A study compared the dietary intake of 11 ADHD adolescents to 12 similarly aged controls. The cause of ADHD is known to have many factors, involving biological influence and environmental influence. Within the brain, there are four important fatty acids: dihomogammalinolenic acid (20:3n-6, DGLA) arachidonic acid (20:4n-6, AA), Eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3 EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA). AA and play a major role in the structure of the neuronal membrane and make around 20% of the dry mass of the brain. It is possible that a lack of omega-3 fatty acids, or altered metabolic handling of the fatty acids listed previously, could lead to the symptoms observed by adolescents with ADHD. To test this, 11 children ranging from ten to sixteen were recruited, and 12 similarly aged children were used as a control group. It was found that the ADHD group consumed more saturated fats and trans fatty acids, and both groups had consumed the same amount of omega-3 fatty acids of ALA, EPA, DHA. However, a phospholipid analysis of red blood cell samples showed that the total omega-3 fatty acid levels of the ADHD group were lower than that of the control group. The ratio of omega-3 fatty acids to omega-6 fatty acids were also significantly lower in the ADHD group.
Although the ADHD group consumed diets rich in fats, they had a significantly lower level of DHA, and a lower ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in red blood cell phospholipids. Because the study size is small, more research is necessary to determine if supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids will influence ADHD behaviors in patients.
Monday, October 3, 2016
Differential Effects Between the Omega-3, Brain, and Age
Title: Dietary (n-3) Fatty Acids and Brain Development
Author: Sheila M. Innis
Link: http://jn.nutrition.org/content/137/4/855.short
Summary: DHA, also known as docosahexaenoic acid [22:6(n-3)], is known for being the main provider to the biological system from (n-3) fatty acids. These fatty acids are essential dietary nutrients that supports the nervous tissues to allow them to function properly and grow. The fatty acids can be metabolized through the process of Delta-6 desaturation and Delta-5 desaturation in the endoplastmic reticulum (ER). From EPA to DHA the process requires two sequential elongnations of EPA (24:6(n-3)). Insufficient dietary of (n-3) fatty acids produces increased desaturation in (n-6) DPA (Docasepentaenoic acid). Consuming ALA converts to low amounts of DHA in humans (<1% dietary ALA). With these proofs, it is suggested to consume straight DHA foods instead of alternative fatty-acid foods (ALA & EPA (n-3)). The dietary DHA is absorbed terrifically to the plasma and blood cell lipids. Understanding this gives an hypothesis to how it applies to the theory of affecting the brain. Autopsies performed on infants demonstrates ~15% less brain cortex DHA who took formulas that contained no DHA compared to the ones who did.There are hypothesis that the lipid-bound DHA in membrane bilayers plays a role with the synapses of the brain. The functions with hydrophobic properties limits to activities such as intense flexibility and interaction with membrane proteins. Therefore, this affects the speed of signal transduction, neurotransmission, and lipid rafts. This gives the theory that excess amounts of DHA can be used to enhance neuron synapses making way for quicker reaction. And insufficient amounts of DHA may open doors for premature brain development and begin the genesis of brain disorders.
Connection: The journal ties between all types of ages delving from the study of infants to fully grown adults. Predictions made from this journal also provide hypothesis on how quick reaction time can help athletes. We have done some shallow research already on how DHA affects athletes and this journal supports the other article on a molecular level. This also ties in with someone else's early articles about omega-3 and cognitive correlations.
Author: Sheila M. Innis
Link: http://jn.nutrition.org/content/137/4/855.short
Summary: DHA, also known as docosahexaenoic acid [22:6(n-3)], is known for being the main provider to the biological system from (n-3) fatty acids. These fatty acids are essential dietary nutrients that supports the nervous tissues to allow them to function properly and grow. The fatty acids can be metabolized through the process of Delta-6 desaturation and Delta-5 desaturation in the endoplastmic reticulum (ER). From EPA to DHA the process requires two sequential elongnations of EPA (24:6(n-3)). Insufficient dietary of (n-3) fatty acids produces increased desaturation in (n-6) DPA (Docasepentaenoic acid). Consuming ALA converts to low amounts of DHA in humans (<1% dietary ALA). With these proofs, it is suggested to consume straight DHA foods instead of alternative fatty-acid foods (ALA & EPA (n-3)). The dietary DHA is absorbed terrifically to the plasma and blood cell lipids. Understanding this gives an hypothesis to how it applies to the theory of affecting the brain. Autopsies performed on infants demonstrates ~15% less brain cortex DHA who took formulas that contained no DHA compared to the ones who did.There are hypothesis that the lipid-bound DHA in membrane bilayers plays a role with the synapses of the brain. The functions with hydrophobic properties limits to activities such as intense flexibility and interaction with membrane proteins. Therefore, this affects the speed of signal transduction, neurotransmission, and lipid rafts. This gives the theory that excess amounts of DHA can be used to enhance neuron synapses making way for quicker reaction. And insufficient amounts of DHA may open doors for premature brain development and begin the genesis of brain disorders.
Connection: The journal ties between all types of ages delving from the study of infants to fully grown adults. Predictions made from this journal also provide hypothesis on how quick reaction time can help athletes. We have done some shallow research already on how DHA affects athletes and this journal supports the other article on a molecular level. This also ties in with someone else's early articles about omega-3 and cognitive correlations.
Sunday, October 2, 2016
Benefits of Omega-3 on aged SHR
Link:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5479998_Aged_male_and_female_spontaneously_hypertensive_rats_benefit_from_n-3_polyunsaturated_fatty_acids_supplementation
Title: Aged male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats benefit from n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation
Author: M. MITAŠÍKOVÁ, S. ŠMIDOVÁ1, A. MACSALIOVÁ, V. KNEZL2, K. DLUGOŠOVÁ, Ľ. OKRUHLICOVÁ, P. WEISMANN3, N. TRIBULOVÁ
Summary:
The experiments are conducted on 14 month-old spontaneously hypertensive rats(SHR) for 2 months. There are two groups: one group of 24 receives omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, and the other group of 24 doesn't. At the end of the experiment, the SHRs' body weight and blood pressure are measured. With these data, the cardioprotective effects of omega-3 are investigated. The result shows several improvements: the decline of blood pressure, suppression of ventricular fibrillation, preservation of cardiomyocytes, enhancement of metabolism enzyme activity, and augmentation of capillary density. Because of increase of alkaline phosphatase (AIP) and suppression of DPP4 activity, the results indicate Omega-3 affects capillary endothelium function. AIP breaks down phosphate esters and has high activities in cell membranes, such as capillary endothelium. And, the data shows that untreated SHRs have lower capillary AIP and higher DPP4 activity. The suppression of DPP4 activity by Omega-3 can be beneficial for aged hypertensive rat heart. The conclusion is both male and female SHRs benefit from omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid because of the suppression of arrhythmias, though the mechanisms need further studies.
Title: Aged male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats benefit from n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation
Author: M. MITAŠÍKOVÁ, S. ŠMIDOVÁ1, A. MACSALIOVÁ, V. KNEZL2, K. DLUGOŠOVÁ, Ľ. OKRUHLICOVÁ, P. WEISMANN3, N. TRIBULOVÁ
Summary:
The experiments are conducted on 14 month-old spontaneously hypertensive rats(SHR) for 2 months. There are two groups: one group of 24 receives omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, and the other group of 24 doesn't. At the end of the experiment, the SHRs' body weight and blood pressure are measured. With these data, the cardioprotective effects of omega-3 are investigated. The result shows several improvements: the decline of blood pressure, suppression of ventricular fibrillation, preservation of cardiomyocytes, enhancement of metabolism enzyme activity, and augmentation of capillary density. Because of increase of alkaline phosphatase (AIP) and suppression of DPP4 activity, the results indicate Omega-3 affects capillary endothelium function. AIP breaks down phosphate esters and has high activities in cell membranes, such as capillary endothelium. And, the data shows that untreated SHRs have lower capillary AIP and higher DPP4 activity. The suppression of DPP4 activity by Omega-3 can be beneficial for aged hypertensive rat heart. The conclusion is both male and female SHRs benefit from omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid because of the suppression of arrhythmias, though the mechanisms need further studies.
Muscles and Omega-3s
Title: Omega-3 supplementation alters mitochondrial membrane composition and respiration kinetics in human skeletal muscle
Link: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.2013.267336/full
Author: E.A.F. Herbst, S. Paglialunga, C. Gerling, J. Whitfield, K. Mukai, A. Chabowski, G.J.F. Heigenhauser, L.L. Spriet, G.P. Holloway
The research done by these scientists supports the claim that a diet enriched with omega-3 fatty acids will show an increase in omega-3 concentration in the mitochondrial membrane of human muscle tissue. This leads to the assumption that more ATP to be created during oxidative phosphorylation. However, direct evidence suggesting improved mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation does not exist in human skeletal muscle. But, it has been shown to improve the efficiency of oxygen use in in the hear tissue of rats, which leads to the question of whether humans also have improved mitochondrial respiratory function with omega-3 PUFA supplementation. Said research was not discussed in this article.
In addition, the increased concentration of omega-3 fatty acids in the skeletal muscle tissue displaces the omega-6 fatty acids from some phsopholipid species, which can decrease inflammation.
Link: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.2013.267336/full
Author: E.A.F. Herbst, S. Paglialunga, C. Gerling, J. Whitfield, K. Mukai, A. Chabowski, G.J.F. Heigenhauser, L.L. Spriet, G.P. Holloway
The research done by these scientists supports the claim that a diet enriched with omega-3 fatty acids will show an increase in omega-3 concentration in the mitochondrial membrane of human muscle tissue. This leads to the assumption that more ATP to be created during oxidative phosphorylation. However, direct evidence suggesting improved mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation does not exist in human skeletal muscle. But, it has been shown to improve the efficiency of oxygen use in in the hear tissue of rats, which leads to the question of whether humans also have improved mitochondrial respiratory function with omega-3 PUFA supplementation. Said research was not discussed in this article.
In addition, the increased concentration of omega-3 fatty acids in the skeletal muscle tissue displaces the omega-6 fatty acids from some phsopholipid species, which can decrease inflammation.
Omega-3's Role In Synaptic Integrity
Title: Endogenous Signaling by Omega-3 Docosahexaenoic Acid-derived Mediators Sustains Homeostatic Synaptic and Circuitry Integrity
Author: Nicolas G. Bazan, Alberto E. Musto, Eric J. Knott
Link: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12035-011-8200-6
Summary: The system of synapses and circuits within the brain is extremely complex, and has to be maintained by a variety of factors including "excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission, neurotrophins, gene regulation, and [other] factors". Almost all components of the brain circuit (dendrites, synaptic membranes, other membranes in the nervous system) contain high levels of DHA. DHA is also known as docosahexaenoic acid, and it is a main component of the "omega-3 essential fatty acid family." This DHA in the nervous system helps to protect the nervous system, as well as help with one's memory and vision. After observing that the amount of free (unesterified) DHA molecules found in the brain rapidly increases during the onset of seizures or brain injury, scientists began to hypothesize that DHA-derived docosanoids "set in motion endogenous signaling to sustain homeostatic synaptic and circuit integrity." Synaptic integrity is "a functional synaptic unit with unimpaired neuronal transmission". This hypothesis was offered largely due to the discovery of the neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), which is the first-uncovered bioactive docosanoid formed from free DHA (through 15-LOX-1). NPD1 is anti-inflammatory and induces cell survival. Specifically, NPD1 "upregulates anti-apoptotic proteins and downregulates pro-apoptotic proteins in response to cellular oxidative stress and cytokine activation, leading to an overall pro-survival transcriptome". This research offers promise for medicinal related DHA-mediated signalling to help maintain synaptic integrity. To summarize, omega-3s (specifically DHA), can help maintain the synaptic integrity of an individual by utilizing endogenous signaling to prevent inflammation in the brain and induce cell survival.
Author: Nicolas G. Bazan, Alberto E. Musto, Eric J. Knott
Link: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12035-011-8200-6
Summary: The system of synapses and circuits within the brain is extremely complex, and has to be maintained by a variety of factors including "excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission, neurotrophins, gene regulation, and [other] factors". Almost all components of the brain circuit (dendrites, synaptic membranes, other membranes in the nervous system) contain high levels of DHA. DHA is also known as docosahexaenoic acid, and it is a main component of the "omega-3 essential fatty acid family." This DHA in the nervous system helps to protect the nervous system, as well as help with one's memory and vision. After observing that the amount of free (unesterified) DHA molecules found in the brain rapidly increases during the onset of seizures or brain injury, scientists began to hypothesize that DHA-derived docosanoids "set in motion endogenous signaling to sustain homeostatic synaptic and circuit integrity." Synaptic integrity is "a functional synaptic unit with unimpaired neuronal transmission". This hypothesis was offered largely due to the discovery of the neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), which is the first-uncovered bioactive docosanoid formed from free DHA (through 15-LOX-1). NPD1 is anti-inflammatory and induces cell survival. Specifically, NPD1 "upregulates anti-apoptotic proteins and downregulates pro-apoptotic proteins in response to cellular oxidative stress and cytokine activation, leading to an overall pro-survival transcriptome". This research offers promise for medicinal related DHA-mediated signalling to help maintain synaptic integrity. To summarize, omega-3s (specifically DHA), can help maintain the synaptic integrity of an individual by utilizing endogenous signaling to prevent inflammation in the brain and induce cell survival.
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