Chemistry Research at WCS: February 2017

Tuesday, February 28, 2017

Supplementation with Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Psychiatric Disorders

Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4999787/
Title: Supplementation with Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Psychiatric Disorders: A Review of Literature Data
Authors: Lindsay Brown, Academic Editor, Bernhard Rauch, Academic Editor, and Hemant Poudyal.
Date: July 27, 2016
Source: MDPI Journal of Clinical Medicine

Summary

Highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs) are in neural phospholipids and are important in neuronal cell membrane. They help the mechanisms of brain cell signaling like dopaminergic and serotonergic pathways. Dopaminergic is the dopamine neurotransmitter and serotonergic means a nerve cell that releases and is stimulated by serotonin.
Schizophrenia
Studies show that patients with schizophrenia have low levels of EPA and DHA. A 12-week placebo-controlled trial in 30 males and 15 females on stable antipsychotic medication who were still symptomatic. Only 35 patients completed the trial. EPA was shown more effective in the reduction of symptoms as assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Less encouraging findings were also present with a study by Fenton and Colleagues who designed a 16-week study. 87 patients were given 3g of EPA a day vs. placebo. There were no positive or negative results shown.
Conclusion
Biggest improvements with omega-3 supplementation have been seen with mood disorders, in particular, depressive symptoms with a does as low as 1g a day. EPA is seen to be more effective than DHA.

High ω-3 diet could alleviate blood-brain barrier dysfunction

Title: High ω-3/ω-6 ratio diet could alleviate blood-brain barrier dysfunction in rat model with traumatic brain injury
Author: Jianguang Su, Kai Quan, Kun Fan, Jiaying Zhang, Jingfang Liu, Wei Hua, Ying Mao
Source: www.ijcem.com
Link: http://www.ijcem.com/files/ijcem0039219.pdf
Source publish date: November 30, 2016
Summary:

Researchers in this research is working to find out the protective effect of high omega-3 diet on delayed blood brain barrier dysfunction in post-traumatic brain injury using mice model. There are several significant results of the lab. First, the high omega-3 diet helps the brain after traumatic brain injury. The brain injury and cerebral edema is less extensive in mice with high omega-3 diet. The cerebral edema attenuated in high omega-3 group as well, indicating the protective effect. Second, high omega-3 diet help reduce the amount of 4-HNE in production. 4-HNE is known as a biomarker of oxidative stress. It also enhances the tight junction proteins shown by the increase of ZO-1 and Occludin. These proteins are crucial in cell communication. Third, 4-HNE inhibitor helps protect the post-TBI brain as well. When 4-HNE inhibitor is injected into the low omega-3, the cerebral edema shows less damage as well. They hypothesize that there’s correlation between Omega-3 and 4-HNB inhibitor. Fourth, high omega-3 diet helps increase recovery speed of cognitive function. Using the water maze test, the researcher find out that high omega-3 group has shorter escape latency, longer time in target quadrant, and higher number of platform crossing. These means high Omega-3 diet could improve the spatial learning and memory function.

Cerebral edema is one of the biggest risk factor in Blood Brain Barrier dysfunction. The researchers speculate mechanism of how Omega-3 and Omega-6 affect the BBB dysfunction is related to the metabolites of them. The product of Omegs-3 peroxidation is 4-HHE known to protect the brain. The product of Omega-6 peroxidation is 4-HNE which has carbonyl group to cause protein carbonylation effecting the function. The result is the changes of permeability of endothelial cells caused by changing in tight junction protein.

Omega-3 Memory Function Benefits in Aging Population

Article:

Impact of Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Memory Functions in Healthy Older Adults

Source: IOS Content Library

Date: 30 March 2016

Link:

http://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad150886

Summary:

Memory loss in aging populations is a common phenomenon in aging populations, in some cases leading to serious conditions and diseases such in alzheimer's. Research has indicated that the beginning of such diseases and memory loss in aging individuals occurs far before their observable onset. Thus, taking steps to prevent such diseases is important in even for healthy aging individuals. This study looked to examine what (if any) effects long-chain omega-3 fatty acid supplementation had in helping this prevention. The test conducted was a double blind supplementation of either long chain n-3's or a placebo to 44 healthy adults aged 50-75. At beginning and end of the 26 week study, the researchers used the LOCATO tool (which is a "significant and robust" way to measure object-location memory) to test the cognitive performance of the test subjects. In addition, the team tested the participants using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, aquired the participants' dietary information, and tested their omega-3 blood levels. At the end of the study, the group given the omega-3 supplements had far higher omega-3 blood levels than the placebo group, showing the supplements had been successfully digested and added to the body. This did not correlate to auditory learning, as neither group (placebo or supplemented) showed a significant advantage over the others in the Rey Auditory Verbal Test. However, more importantly, the omega-3 supplemented group showed significant improvements over the placebo group in object-location memory.
Thus, this study strongly indicates that omega-3 levels can improve a person's ability to retain and use object location memory as they age. Obviously there are more areas of memory than object-location, and it is unclear why this specific type of memory is affected by the presence of n-3's more than others.
Although the general idea of omega-3's being beneficial for memory retention is not a new concept, this study provides one of the most substantial pieces of evidence that exists to back up the claim.

Cognitive Impairment, B Vitamens, and Omega 3s

Title: Omega-3 Fatty Acid Status Enhances the Prevention of Cognitive Decline by B Vitamins in Mild Cognitive Impairment

Authors: Abderrahim Oulhaj, Fredrik Jerneren, Helga Refsum, A. David Smith, Celeste A. de Jager

Source: IOS Press Content Library

Date: Jan. 2016

Link: http://content.iospress.com/download/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad150777?id=journal-of-alzheimers-disease%2Fjad150777

Summary: This trial studied the combined effects of B vitamins (folic acid, B6, and B12) and omega 3s (docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid) on patients who had mild cognitive impairment. MCI is basically an intermediate stage between the expected levels of cognitive decline that come with aging and dementia. Over the course of two years, 266 patients with MCI over the age of seventy were either placed in a group that took B vitamins or a placebo group. Over that course of time, patients were rated on their performance on baseline cognitive tests and their clinical dementia rating. Plasma concentrations of homocysteine and omega 3's were measured.

Those in the Vitamin B group with increasing levels of omega-3s achieved increasingly better scores on the baseline cognitive tests and dementia ratings. The increasing concentrations of omega-3's in the placebo group, however, had no effect on these scores. This suggests that Vitamin Bs and omega-3s work together to achieve the effect of slowing cognitive decline. Another telling factor was that when omega-3 fatty acid concentrations were low in patients, the B vitamins had no effect of the cognitive decline of mild cognitive impairment.

Among those with "good omega-3 status", it was found that 33% of those on Vitamin B supplements had clinical dementia scores greater than zero (if you score above zero, you have progressed into the stages of dementia), compared to 59% of placebo patients. Basically, more placebo patients had progressed into the early stages of dementia. It was found that DHA alone significantly enhanced the cognitive effects of the Vitamin B. EPA was less effective.

B vitamins lowered levels of homocysteine in blood plasma. Homocysteine is a non-essential amino acid. Elevated levels of homocysteine in the blood is recognized as a risk factor for cognitive impairment, Alzheimers, and dementia. The vitamin B treatment in this trial only improved the status of patients with high baseline homocysteine concentrations, slowing the rate of both global and regional brain atrophy.

Cerebral Ischemia and Omega 3s

Article 1: Novel insights into the effect of Vitamin B12 and omega-3 fatty acids on brain function

Author: Richa Rathod, Anvita Kale, and Sadhana Joshi

Source: Journal of Biomedical Science

Date: January 2016

Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4727338/pdf/12929_2016_Article_241.pdf

Article 2 (source used in Article 1): Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids enhance cerebral angiogenesis and provide long-term protection after stroke.
Authors: Wang J, Shi Y, Zhang L, Zhang F, Hu X, Zhang W, et al.
Source: Journal of Biomedical Science
Date: August 2014
Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24794156

Explanation of Cerebral Ischemia: http://www.columbianeurosurgery.org/conditions/cerebral-ischemia/

Homocysteine is a non-protein alpha-amino acid. Homocysteine is recycled into methionine or converted into cysteine with the aid of Vitamin B12. If there are high levels of homocysteine in the blood stream, meaning homocysteine is not being converted, a person is more prone to endothelial cell injury. Endothelial cells line our blood vessels and help control inflammation and blood clotting among other things. When endothelial cells are damaged, they cannot perform all their function properly. This could lead to blood clotting. When a blood clot blocks a cerebral vessel, not enough oxygen gets to the brain. This leads to the death of brain tissue, cerebral infarction, or ischemic stroke. Cerebral ischemia is a condition that occurs when there isn't enough blood flow to the brain to meet metabolic demand.

After a stroke caused by cerebral ischemia, the most important therapeutic strategies are enhancing angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels) and improve cerebral microcirculation (circulation of blood in the smallest blood vessels). Supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids have been found to improve neurological function after cerebral ischemia. A study done on mice showed that omega-3s induced upregulation (process of increasing the response to a stimulus) of angiopoietin 2 (a growth factor that signals a process where new arteries and veins form from preexisting blood vessels). And angiopoietin 2 facilitates endothelial proliferation, which caused a new barrier to form in the blood vessels. The reformation of these barriers has led to studies showing the overall improvement of cognitive function after someone has suffered from a stroke.

Thursday, February 9, 2017

Extraction article

Articles that are relevant to extraction of FAs listed in comments

Sunday, February 5, 2017

Gas Chromatography Standards for Beef

Source 1 Title: Fatty acid composition and cholesterol content of beef and chicken meat in Southern Brazil
Author(s): Jussara Carnevale de Almeida, Magda Susana Perassolo, Joíza Lins Camargo, Neura Bragagnolo, Jorge Luis Gross
Source: RBCF (Revista Brasileira de Ciências Farmacêuticas)
Link: http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbcf/v42n1/29865.pdf

Source 2 Title: Linolenic Acid (for Sale)
Author(s): N/A
Source: Sigma-Aldrich
Link: http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/62170?lang=en&region=US

Source 3 Title (MS): Profiling of Fatty Acids Conmposition in Suet Oil Based on GC-El-qMS and Chemometrics Analysis
Author(s): Jun Jiang and Xiaobin Jia
Source: NCBI
Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4346870/

Thursday, February 2, 2017

Omega-3s and Location

Article 1: Japanese Diet Rich In Fish May Hold Secret To Healthy Heart: Omega-3 Fatty Acids From Fish Appear To Prevent Clogged Arteries

Author: American College of Cardiology

Source: Science Daily

Link : https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080728192645.htm

Article 2: The Nordic diet... the Scandinavian secret coming over here

Author: Adrian Lee

Source: Sunday Express

Link: http://www.express.co.uk/life-style/health/426559/The-Nordic-diet-the-Scandinavian-secret-coming-over-here

First Semester Material

Micro Effects

Omega-3s decrease the chemical thromboxane, a natural anticoagulant, production in the liver.

Omega-3 decreases in the inflammatory response, therefore weakens immune system of the body.

Omega-3s have a significant impact on different cellular structures and chemical levels in the body.

Unsaturated fatty acids break up the tightly packed saturated fat phospholipids, loosening up the membrane and giving it more fluidity

Omega-3 has been found most beneficial to patients who has suffered from some kind of respiratory or cardiovascular disease, decreasing the fibrosis built up from the damage and also repairing the scarring tissues.

Omega-3 essential fatty acid family is made up of omega-3 fatty acids that humans cannot synthesize on our own.

Omega-3s fights off free radicals.

Free DHA molecules would help protect the brain and limit the damage of the brain injury.

Omega-3s can help maintain the synaptic integrity of an individual by utilizing endogenous signaling to prevent inflammation in the brain and induce cell survival.

The Omega-3 fatty acids can fuse with the membrane of the red blood cells allowing control and rebalance in antioxidant levels.

Macro effects

Consuming less fish has an increased risk of psychological diseases such as depression and bipolarism.

Rate limiting enzyme lowers the rate in which Serotonin is being produced and causes irregular neurological behavior.

Synaptic vesicles, made of mainly fatty acids, is responsible for the release of the neurotransmitters.

The transmitters flow across the synaptic cleft and bind with ligand-gated ion channels causes a change in potential, then they popped off.

This increased fluidity of neural membranes helps in allowing the synaptic vesicles to bind to the membrane easier the opening or closing of ion channels.

Children who took Omega-3 and Omega-6 supplement showed significant improvement in their reading ability compared to children who took a placebo.

People with hippocampus size in the lowest quartile had an omega-3 level of 3% less than highest quartile.

Taking Omega-3 pills increase the insulin and amino acid reaction allowing for a faster protein synthesis to occur.

Patients with ADHD and Alzheimer have less DHA, EPA and more oxidative damage in neuron.

Oxidative damage causes neuron-degeneration preventing neurons from absorbing chemicals normally.

Semester Two

Pollution and Other Contaminants and their Effects

Ellen:

POP(Persistent organic pollutants) are prevalent in farmed fatty fish because they are lipophilic. POPs have adverse effects on the body.

Dioxin: Affects AhR signalling cascade, GLUT proteins (isoforms 1&3) and the H+ gradient + ATP formation in mitochondria, lead to beta cell death.

Taylor:

Fish Carcinogenicity: 10 metals discovered as a result of bioaccumulation.

Wet season produced the worst fish to do agricultural waste, many fish exposed to arsenic.

Scombrotoxin: Temperature exposure causes flesh amino acids to convert to histamine.

Grass-fed Beef vs. Grain-fed Beef

Tessa:

Grass fed beef will have higher amounts of fatty acids in general, including N-6’s, N-3’s, ALA (Alpha Linoleic Acid), TVA (Vaccenic Acid), and Linoleic Acid.

ALA does not commonly convert to DHA because the western diet affects conversion rate. TVA converts to anti-carcinogen CLA in tissues of humans and the lumen in animals.

Nick:

N-3 levels of grass-fed cows will be higher than that of grain-fed cows. As a lower n-6:n-3 ratio is desired, leaner cuts such as strip loin provide a ratio of 3.35:1.

Grain-fed cows will have higher amounts of monounsaturated fatty acids. MUFA’s decrease the risk of type II diabetes, but the average n-6:n-3 ratio is 12:1.

Matthew:

Much of the DHA found in fatty fishes is found in algae. Algae then can be used for omega-3 supplements or can increase the n-3 levels of the livestock that eat it (still in early development). ALA can be converted to EPA and DHA, but only at a few percent efficiency. Interestingly, vegetarians can convert more efficiently.

Illness and Disease

Jack:

Omega-3’s increased the risk of type II diabetes in women. It is thought that the omega-3’s caused cells to oxidize, causing the cells to have pro inflammatory products.

Higher levels of omega-3’s have been associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer, but no concrete evidence has been discovered.

Anthony:

It is believed that Vitamin D. and Omega-3’s work in conjunction to lessen or prevent type I diabetes. There is a hypothesis that omega-3 supplementation can replace the role of insulin to sterilize RBC.

ApoE4 Gene

Charlie:

People with the ApoE4 gene do not perform well in cognitive tests because their brains take up less omega-3’s compared to other genotypes. (ApoE2 and ApoE3).

With DHA supplementation, the reaction time and memory improved, with women receiving greater benefits from supplementation.

Lauren:

ApoE4 is a susceptibility gene that increases a person’s chance of having Alzheimer’s because it impairs the body's antioxidant defence system, which cause more oxidative stress from the oxidation of DHA.

ApoE4 transports beta-amyloid less efficiently, which could lead to plaque build up in the brain. Beta-amyloid plaque has been shown to cause the cognitive deterioration in Alzheimer’s.